Introduction
Sarah Bakewell's "At The Existentialist Café" takes us on a journey through the world of existentialism, a philosophy that emerged in the mid-20th century and profoundly influenced modern thought. The book explores the lives and ideas of key figures in the existentialist movement, including Jean-Paul Sartre, Simone de Beauvoir, and Albert Camus, among others. Bakewell weaves together biography, history, and philosophy to create a vivid portrait of a time when ideas about freedom, responsibility, and the nature of human existence were hotly debated in the cafés of Paris and beyond.
The story begins with a seemingly mundane event: three friends sharing apricot cocktails in a Parisian bar. This moment, however, would spark a philosophical revolution that would change the course of 20th-century thought. From there, Bakewell takes us through the development of existentialism, its roots in phenomenology, and its impact on literature, politics, and culture.
The Birth of Existentialism
An Apricot Cocktail Revolution
In the early 1930s, three young philosophers sat in a Parisian bar, sipping apricot cocktails and discussing their dissatisfaction with the state of philosophy. Jean-Paul Sartre, Simone de Beauvoir, and Raymond Aron had all studied at the prestigious École normale supérieure, but they felt that the traditional philosophical questions they had been taught were disconnected from real life.
Aron, who had been studying in Berlin, introduced his friends to a new philosophical approach called phenomenology. He explained that this method allowed philosophers to examine everyday experiences – even something as simple as an apricot cocktail – and draw meaningful insights from them. This idea electrified Sartre and de Beauvoir, who saw in it the potential for a new kind of philosophy that could speak to the realities of human existence.
Sartre was so excited by this concept that he immediately went to a bookstore and bought every book on phenomenology they had (which turned out to be just one). He then arranged to spend a year studying in Berlin, immersing himself in this new philosophical approach. This encounter with phenomenology would prove to be the catalyst for Sartre's development of existentialism.
The Roots of Phenomenology
To understand existentialism, we need to first explore its roots in phenomenology. This philosophical method was developed by Edmund Husserl in the early 20th century in Freiburg, Germany. Phenomenology aimed to describe phenomena – anything that appears to consciousness – as they are experienced, without relying on preconceived notions or theories.
Husserl introduced the concept of epoché, which means "suspension of judgment." This involves setting aside our assumptions and preconceptions about the world to focus on the direct experience of phenomena. For example, when describing pain, a phenomenologist would try to capture the actual experience rather than relying on medical terminology or cultural ideas about pain.
This approach was revolutionary because it shifted philosophy's focus from abstract questions about the nature of reality to the concrete experiences of living, thinking beings. It provided a method for examining the world as it appears to us, rather than speculating about an unknowable reality beyond our perceptions.
Martin Heidegger: Brilliance and Controversy
One of Husserl's most brilliant students was Martin Heidegger, who would go on to become a major figure in 20th-century philosophy. Heidegger's 1927 book "Being and Time" revolutionized phenomenology and laid the groundwork for existentialism.
Heidegger argued that previous philosophers had overlooked the fundamental question of being. He introduced the concept of Dasein (literally "being-there" in German) to describe human existence. Unlike other philosophers who viewed humans as detached observers of the world, Heidegger emphasized that we are always already in the world, engaged with it in practical ways.
However, Heidegger's philosophical brilliance was marred by his involvement with the Nazi party. In 1933, he accepted the position of rector at Freiburg University, which required him to join the Nazi party and enforce anti-Semitic policies. This decision had profound consequences, both for Heidegger's reputation and for his relationships with colleagues and students, many of whom were Jewish.
The controversy surrounding Heidegger's Nazi affiliations continues to this day, especially in light of the 2014 publication of his notebooks, which contained anti-Semitic writings. This aspect of Heidegger's life raises difficult questions about the relationship between a philosopher's ideas and their actions – a theme that would become central to existentialist thought.
The Core of Existentialism
Freedom and Responsibility
At the heart of existentialism lies the concept of radical freedom. Sartre famously declared that "existence precedes essence," meaning that humans are not born with a predetermined nature or purpose. Instead, we create ourselves through our choices and actions.
This freedom, however, comes with a heavy burden of responsibility. If we are truly free to choose our actions, then we are also fully responsible for their consequences. Sartre illustrated this idea with an anecdote about a student who came to him for advice during World War II. The student was torn between staying in France to care for his mother or leaving to join the resistance against the Nazis. Sartre's response was that no ethical system could make this decision for the student – he had to choose for himself and take responsibility for that choice.
This emphasis on freedom and responsibility was not just an abstract philosophical concept for the existentialists. They sought to embody these ideas in their own lives, often in unconventional ways.
Living Existentialism: Sartre and de Beauvoir
Jean-Paul Sartre and Simone de Beauvoir's relationship exemplified their commitment to existentialist principles. Rejecting traditional notions of marriage and monogamy, they created a partnership based on intellectual collaboration and personal freedom. They agreed to a "two-year lease" on their relationship, which they could renew or modify as they saw fit. This arrangement lasted for five decades, allowing both partners to pursue other relationships while maintaining their primary bond.
Their commitment to existentialism extended beyond their personal lives. Both were prolific writers, producing philosophical treatises, novels, plays, and essays. They saw their writing as a way to explore and express existentialist ideas, often using literature as a vehicle for philosophical exploration.
Sartre and de Beauvoir were also politically active, participating in protests and lending their support to various causes. They saw this activism as a natural extension of their philosophical beliefs – if we are truly free and responsible for our actions, then we have an obligation to engage with the world and work towards positive change.
Existentialism in Wartime
The Second World War had a profound impact on the development of existentialism. The occupation of France by Nazi Germany forced many philosophers, including Sartre and de Beauvoir, to confront the realities of oppression, resistance, and moral choice in extreme circumstances.
Sartre was drafted into the French army and later taken prisoner by the Germans. During his time in a POW camp, he read Heidegger's "Being and Time" and began formulating his own philosophical ideas. After escaping and returning to Paris, he wrote his magnum opus, "Being and Nothingness," which laid out the foundations of existentialist philosophy.
De Beauvoir remained in occupied Paris, where she continued to write and teach. The experiences of war and occupation deeply influenced her thinking about freedom, ethics, and the human condition.
For both thinkers, the war underscored the importance of individual choice and responsibility in the face of oppression and injustice. It also highlighted the absurdity of human existence – the contrast between our desire for meaning and purpose and the often chaotic, indifferent nature of the world.
The Postwar Existentialist Boom
After the war, existentialism exploded in popularity, particularly in France. Sartre became a celebrity philosopher, drawing huge crowds to his lectures and public talks. The Saint-Germain-des-Prés area of Paris became the epicenter of existentialist culture, with cafés and jazz clubs serving as gathering places for intellectuals, artists, and students.
This postwar period saw the publication of many key existentialist works, including Sartre's "Existentialism Is a Humanism" and Albert Camus's "The Stranger" and "The Myth of Sisyphus." These works helped to popularize existentialist ideas and brought them to a wider audience.
The existentialist scene was characterized by a rejection of traditional values and a embrace of new, often American-influenced cultural forms like jazz and bebop. It was a time of intellectual ferment and cultural experimentation, with existentialism providing a philosophical framework for questioning established norms and exploring new ways of living.
Key Existentialist Thinkers and Ideas
Jean-Paul Sartre: Freedom and Bad Faith
Sartre's philosophy centered on the idea of radical freedom. He argued that humans are "condemned to be free" – we have no fixed essence or nature, but must constantly create ourselves through our choices and actions. This freedom, however, can be terrifying, leading many people to engage in what Sartre called "bad faith."
Bad faith involves denying one's freedom and responsibility by pretending to be bound by external factors. Sartre used the example of a waiter who acts in an exaggerated, theatrical manner, as if his role as a waiter defines his entire being. By doing so, the waiter avoids the anxiety of recognizing his fundamental freedom and responsibility.
Sartre's ideas about freedom and responsibility had profound implications for ethics and politics. He argued that we cannot rely on external moral systems or authorities to guide our actions – we must make our own choices and take full responsibility for them.
Simone de Beauvoir: Feminism and Existentialism
While often overshadowed by Sartre in popular accounts of existentialism, Simone de Beauvoir made crucial contributions to the philosophy, particularly in applying existentialist ideas to questions of gender and social inequality.
Her groundbreaking work "The Second Sex," published in 1949, applied existentialist concepts to the situation of women. De Beauvoir argued that women, like men, have no fixed essence or nature. However, society treats women as "the Other," defining them in relation to men and denying them the same freedom and agency.
De Beauvoir's analysis of how women are socialized to see themselves through the male gaze drew on Hegel's concept of the master-slave dialectic. She argued that women are conditioned to see themselves as objects rather than subjects, internalizing male perspectives and values.
"The Second Sex" was a pioneering work of feminist philosophy that had a profound impact on the women's movement of the 1960s and beyond. It demonstrated the power of existentialist ideas to illuminate and challenge social inequalities.
Albert Camus: Absurdism and Revolt
Albert Camus, while not strictly an existentialist, was closely associated with the movement and shared many of its concerns. His philosophy of absurdism grappled with the human need for meaning in a seemingly meaningless universe.
In "The Myth of Sisyphus," Camus used the Greek myth of a man condemned to eternally roll a boulder up a hill as a metaphor for the human condition. He argued that life is inherently absurd – we seek meaning and purpose in a universe that offers none. However, Camus did not see this as a cause for despair. Instead, he advocated for a kind of heroic acceptance of the absurd, finding meaning in the struggle itself.
Camus's novel "The Stranger" explored these ideas through the character of Meursault, a man who seems detached from the normal emotional and moral responses expected by society. The novel raises questions about the nature of authenticity and the individual's relationship to social norms.
While Camus shared many ideas with Sartre and de Beauvoir, he diverged from them on several key points. He was more skeptical of political ideologies and rejected the use of violence for political ends. These differences eventually led to a rift between Camus and his former friends.
Maurice Merleau-Ponty: The Embodied Self
Maurice Merleau-Ponty, another key figure in the existentialist-phenomenological tradition, focused on the role of the body in our experience of the world. He argued that our consciousness is fundamentally embodied – we don't just have bodies, we are our bodies.
Merleau-Ponty's work challenged the traditional philosophical separation of mind and body. He showed how our physical embodiment shapes our perception and understanding of the world. For example, the fact that we have two eyes positioned as they are fundamentally shapes our visual experience of the world.
This emphasis on embodied experience had important implications for existentialist ideas about freedom and authenticity. It suggested that our freedom is always situated within the context of our bodily existence and our physical and social environment.
Existentialism in Practice
Politics and Activism
Many existentialist thinkers were deeply engaged in the political issues of their time. Sartre and de Beauvoir, in particular, were active in left-wing politics and supported various revolutionary movements.
During the events of May 1968 in Paris, when students and workers staged massive protests and strikes, Sartre and de Beauvoir were present on the barricades, lending their support to the demonstrators. They saw this uprising as an expression of the kind of freedom and collective action that their philosophy advocated.
However, the existentialists' political engagements also led to controversies and conflicts. Sartre's support for Soviet communism, even in the face of evidence of its repressive nature, drew criticism from many, including his former friend Camus.
Literature and Art
Existentialism had a profound impact on literature and the arts. Many existentialist philosophers were also novelists and playwrights, using fiction as a way to explore philosophical ideas.
Sartre's novels, such as "Nausea," and his plays, like "No Exit," dramatized existentialist concepts like the absurdity of existence and the nature of interpersonal relationships. De Beauvoir's novels, including "She Came to Stay," explored themes of freedom, responsibility, and the complexities of human relationships.
Beyond the works of the philosophers themselves, existentialism influenced a wide range of writers and artists. The "angry young men" of British literature, the Beat Generation in America, and the Theatre of the Absurd all drew inspiration from existentialist ideas.
Everyday Life
One of the most significant aspects of existentialism was its focus on everyday life and individual experience. Unlike many previous philosophical movements, existentialism sought to address the concrete realities of human existence.
This focus on the everyday manifested in various ways. The existentialists' habit of working in cafés, for example, wasn't just a quirk – it was a way of philosophizing in the midst of life, surrounded by the bustle of the city and the conversations of ordinary people.
Existentialism also provided a framework for thinking about personal decisions and life choices. Its emphasis on freedom and responsibility encouraged people to question societal norms and expectations, and to seek authentic ways of living.
Critiques and Controversies
Philosophical Criticisms
Existentialism faced various criticisms from other philosophers. Some argued that its emphasis on individual freedom ignored the ways in which our choices are constrained by social and historical circumstances. Others criticized what they saw as the movement's tendency towards nihilism or its lack of a coherent ethical framework.
Analytic philosophers, particularly in the English-speaking world, often dismissed existentialism as obscure or lacking in rigor. They criticized the literary style of many existentialist writings and argued that the movement's key concepts were poorly defined.
Political Controversies
The political engagements of existentialist thinkers also led to controversies. Sartre's support for Soviet communism and his refusal to criticize Stalin's regime damaged his reputation in some circles. His famous statement that "every anti-communist is a dog" was seen by many as a betrayal of the principles of free thought that existentialism supposedly championed.
Heidegger's involvement with the Nazi party remained a source of ongoing debate and controversy. While some argued that his philosophy could be separated from his political actions, others saw his Nazism as deeply connected to his philosophical ideas.
Personal Conflicts
The existentialist circle was also marked by personal conflicts and falling-outs. The break between Sartre and Camus, once close friends, was particularly dramatic. Their disagreement over the use of violence in political struggle and the nature of revolt led to a public feud that lasted for years.
These personal conflicts often had philosophical dimensions, reflecting deeper disagreements about the nature of freedom, responsibility, and political action.
Legacy and Influence
Philosophy and Academia
While existentialism as a distinct philosophical movement declined in influence from the 1960s onward, its ideas continued to shape philosophical discourse in various ways. The movement's emphasis on individual experience and its critiques of essentialism influenced later developments in phenomenology, hermeneutics, and postmodernism.
In academia, existentialist thinkers like Sartre, de Beauvoir, and Merleau-Ponty continue to be studied and debated. Their works are seen as important contributions to 20th-century thought, even by those who disagree with their conclusions.
Popular Culture
Existentialism had a significant impact on popular culture, influencing literature, film, and music. The movement's ideas about alienation, authenticity, and the search for meaning resonated with many artists and continue to be explored in various forms of media.
Terms like "existential crisis" have entered common usage, reflecting the way existentialist ideas have permeated popular consciousness. While these popular interpretations often simplify or misrepresent the philosophical concepts, they demonstrate the enduring appeal of existentialist themes.
Contemporary Relevance
Many of the questions raised by existentialism remain relevant today. In an era of rapid technological change and social upheaval, issues of individual freedom, responsibility, and the search for meaning continue to resonate.
Existentialist ideas about authenticity and the critique of social roles have influenced contemporary discussions about identity and self-expression. The movement's emphasis on engaged philosophy – thinking that addresses real-world issues and personal experiences – continues to inspire those who seek to bridge the gap between abstract thought and lived reality.
Conclusion
"At The Existentialist Café" offers a rich and engaging exploration of existentialism, bringing to life the personalities, ideas, and historical context that shaped this influential philosophical movement. Sarah Bakewell's approach, blending biography, history, and philosophical exposition, makes complex ideas accessible without oversimplifying them.
The book reminds us that philosophy is not just an academic exercise, but a way of engaging with the fundamental questions of human existence. The existentialists, for all their flaws and contradictions, sought to create a philosophy that spoke to the realities of lived experience. They grappled with questions of freedom, responsibility, authenticity, and meaning in ways that continue to resonate today.
As we face the challenges and uncertainties of the 21st century, the existentialist emphasis on individual freedom and responsibility remains relevant. The movement's insistence that we create ourselves through our choices and actions offers both a daunting challenge and an empowering possibility.
Ultimately, "At The Existentialist Café" is not just a history of a philosophical movement, but an invitation to engage with these ideas ourselves. It encourages us to examine our own lives, to question our assumptions, and to take responsibility for creating meaning in a complex and often absurd world. In doing so, we might just find, like Sartre and his friends sipping apricot cocktails, that philosophy can be a vibrant, engaging, and deeply personal pursuit.