Cod Summary

How did a seemingly unremarkable fish shape world history, fuel economies, spark wars, and nearly face extinction due to human greed and technological advancement?

1. Cod as a Staple of Early Seafarers

Cod was essential for Europe’s early explorers, especially the Basques, who relied on its salted form to survive long voyages. Its abundance and ease of preservation made it a vital resource.

Salt played an integral role in the success of early seafaring, particularly for the Basques of Spain. Searching for whale meat, they stumbled upon the rich cod stocks near North America and used salt to preserve their catches. Salting fish improved its flavor and shelf life, which allowed for extended travel and trade.

Cod's unique compatibility with preservation methods made it commercially viable. In Europe, where the Catholic Church prohibited meat consumption on fasting days, cod became a popular alternative. This association created a lucrative trade network for the Basques and turned salted cod into a dietary mainstay.

The Basques kept the location of their cod sources secret for years, shielded from competition. However, when other European nations eventually discovered Newfoundland’s codfish paradise, the race to harvest this valuable resource triggered waves of competition and conflict.

Examples

• Basque fishers used innovative salting techniques to extend fish preservation.
• Cod’s role in meeting dietary rules of the Catholic Church spurred its demand.
• Secret Basque fishing ventures typified the economic opportunities cod provided.

2. Cod and Conflict in the New World

The unveiling of Newfoundland as a cod-rich area sparked fierce competition among European powers, leading to economic rivalries and resource-driven confrontations.

In the sixteenth century, the discovery of Newfoundland cod patches stunned the European nations who raced to claim a piece of this valuable food source. Possession of cod meant wealth and influence, driving nations like Britain, Spain, France, and Portugal into a frenzied competition. By mid-century, cod represented 60% of Europe’s fish market.

Alliances emerged and fractured due to cod. For instance, the Portuguese initially partnered with the British to combine their salt and fishing expertise. However, political tensions grew, and by 1585, Britain attacked fleets from Spain and Portugal to assert dominance over cod-rich waters.

The commoditization of cod also fed the American Revolution, as colonial New England became self-reliant by trading cod. British fears about this growing autonomy fueled their harsh policies, further straining ties with their colonies and setting the stage for war.

Examples

• Cod made up 60% of Europe’s fish market during its peak.
• British aggression against Portuguese fleets highlighted cod’s strategic value.
• Trade independence of New England colonies, spurred by cod, contributed to tensions leading to the American Revolution.

3. Longline Fishing and Overproduction

The French invention of longline fishing in the 19th century allowed for unprecedented yields, increasing profits but endangering fish populations through overfishing.

Longline fishing involved deploying extensive fishing lines with multiple hooks, maximizing efficiency in cod-rich waters like those off Canada. This method dramatically boosted production, with French fishermen receiving government subsidies based on their catches. The innovation promised prosperity, driving widespread adoption.

Despite its short-term success, critics warned that longline fishing masked resource depletion. With fish numbers artificially inflated by technology, many failed to see the risk of overpopulation collapse. Philosophers like Thomas Huxley dismissed these fears, echoing a widespread belief that ocean resources were inexhaustible.

Fishing statistics of the time suggested abundance, emboldening over-reliance on destructive practices. This period marked the beginning of modern exploitation of cod stocks, driven by a dangerous blend of technological advancement and ignorance.

Examples

• French fishermen received financial incentives for cod catches using longlining.
• Thomas Huxley claimed fears of overfishing were “unscientific.”
• Longline statistics hid signs of depleting cod populations.

4. Steam Engines and the Cod Boom

The steam engine revolutionized fishing in the 19th century, enabling larger catches and creating logistical challenges that led to new solutions like freezing technologies.

Steam-powered boats offered mobility and strength that earlier fleets lacked. Inventors also introduced otter trawls—massive nets dragged behind steamships—allowing fishers to actively hunt cod instead of passively waiting for catches. The efficiency was undeniable, with catches multiplying sixfold.

This boom in production presented fisheries with a pressing problem: how to keep enormous hauls fresh. Clarence Birdseye’s innovative freezing techniques became the answer. Inspired by Arctic climates, he developed methods of freezing food to retain its flavor, revolutionizing how cod reached markets around the globe.

While these shifts benefited trade and industry, they also contributed to unchecked fishing practices, exacerbating cod population declines in previously untouched regions.

Examples

• Steam engines enabled the use of enormous otter trawl nets, drastically increasing yields.
• Birdseye's frozen food concept started in Arctic Canada before influencing global fisheries.
• Frozen cod allowed the species to reach far-flung markets fresher than before.

5. Iceland’s Cod Wars

Iceland defended its cod stocks against overfishing by gradually expanding national fishing zones, resulting in the “Cod Wars” with Britain.

By 1900, Iceland’s isolation had allowed it to maintain robust fish stocks, but British fleets soon began exploiting Icelandic waters due to their North Sea overfishing. Modern methods by foreign fleets threatened Iceland’s traditional cod supply, forcing Iceland to respond.

Iceland’s independence after World War II allowed the nation to expand its fishing limits from three miles to 200 miles over several decades. Britain resisted these changes, sparking three military-like standoffs. Even as British fishing ships defied boundaries, Icelandic coast guards fought to cut their nets and assert territorial control.

Ultimately, Iceland’s persistence paid off, preserving its cod resources and creating a clear precedent for sustainable resource management.

Examples

• Iceland extended its fishing limits from 3 to 200 miles to protect its waters.
• The British Navy intervened when Icelandic fishermen cut their nets.
• The resolution of the Cod Wars became a landmark in maritime law governance.

6. The Canadian Cod Collapse

Canada’s overexploitation of cod stocks caused a dramatic collapse, forcing strict moratoriums and changing the fishing landscape permanently.

With cod at the core of its economy, Canada ignored early signs of population decline, assuming stock levels would rebound as in the past. Overfishing intensified, compounded by the use of other fish as bait to catch cod.

In 1992, recognizing the catastrophic depletion, Canada shut down most of its fisheries, cutting 30,000 jobs. A rare exception was Nova Scotia, but even there, strict quotas were implemented. Though these measures helped prevent extinction, the cod’s commercial prominence never recovered.

This event underscored the dangers of unsustainable fishing, showing that no resource—no matter how plentiful—can withstand unrelenting exploitation.

Examples

• Overfishing trends in Canada prioritized short-term gains over resource management.
• The 1992 moratorium left thousands of fishers unemployed.
• Canadian quotas reduced fishing pressure but could not revive the cod industry’s former scale.

7. Cod and the Catholic Church Relationship

The Catholic Church indirectly boosted cod’s demand by banning meat on fasting days, leading to a spike in fish consumption.

8. Influence of Cod on Maritime Laws

Conflicts like the Cod Wars established new international precedents for marine territory limits.

9. Lessons in Stewardship

The decline of cod exposes the dangers of ignoring environmental sustainability in favor of short-term profits.

Takeaways

1. Always balance scale with sustainability—no resource is infinite.
2. Learn from Iceland's model of conservation and territorial protection.
3. Utilize advancements in technology with an awareness of the ecological consequences.