Extra Life

How did humanity double its life expectancy in just one century? "Extra Life" reveals an extraordinary journey of innovation and determination.

1. The Power of Vaccination: More than a Eureka Moment

Vaccines are often considered groundbreaking miracles, but the journey to vaccination was much more layered. Edward Jenner is famous for developing the first smallpox vaccine by exposing a boy to cowpox, a related but less lethal virus, which provided smallpox immunity. However, his work built upon practices like inoculation that originated in Asia centuries earlier.

Inoculation involved exposing a person to a small amount of an illness to build immunity. In China, smallpox fighters used unusual methods, like grinding scabs into powder and administering it through the nose. Meanwhile, Lady Mary Wortley Montagu introduced these ideas to Britain after observing the process in Constantinople.

By the 20th century, vaccinations had become a global phenomenon, leading to the historic eradication of smallpox by the 1980s. This success story was the result of building on past practices and decades of work across cultures and continents.

Examples

• Edward Jenner's smallpox vaccine was inspired by observations of milkmaids’ immunity.
• Chinese doctors pioneered variolation techniques long before vaccination.
• Smallpox was globally eradicated through coordinated vaccination campaigns in the 20th century.

2. Transforming Milk into a Safe Household Staple

In the 19th century, milk was more hazardous than nutritious. Urban dairies, often located next to distilleries, fed cows a harmful byproduct called swill. This diet made cows sick, and their diseased milk contributed to high infant mortality rates and even the death of US President Zachary Taylor.

Milk producers resisted change until investigative journalists like Frank Leslie exposed the dangers of "swill milk." While public awareness prompted early reforms, milk safety wasn’t ensured until pasteurization became widespread in the early 20th century. Pasteurization, discovered by Louis Pasteur, uses heat to kill bacteria, dramatically reducing the chance of milk-borne illnesses.

The journey of milk safety shows that good ideas need both strong advocates and regulatory support to bring about real change.

Examples

• Swill-fed cows in urban dairies caused deadly milk contamination in the 19th century.
• Journalist Frank Leslie exposed the harm of swill milk, sparking public outrage and reforms.
• Louis Pasteur’s heat-treatment process, pasteurization, became mandatory to make milk safe.

3. The Rise of Evidence-Based Medicine

Before the 1960s, the pharmaceutical industry in the US operated with minimal oversight. Manufacturers were not required to prove their drugs were effective, leading to a number of unsafe products on the market. Frances Oldham Kelsey, a new hire at the FDA in 1960, changed this trajectory with her rigorous approach to safety.

Kelsey’s scrutiny of the drug thalidomide, intended to treat morning sickness, prevented its approval in the US. Globally, however, thalidomide caused thousands of birth defects and deaths. Her caution led to stricter regulations demanding that drug companies demonstrate both safety and effectiveness.

This shift marked a new era for medicine—one governed by evidence and safety rather than corporate profit.

Examples

• Frances Oldham Kelsey blocked thalidomide from the US market, saving countless lives.
• Reports of birth defects from thalidomide use led to global outrage and new drug laws.
• The FDA began requiring evidence of both drug safety and efficacy after 1962.

4. Penicillin: The Many Hands Behind a Medical Marvel

Antibiotics like penicillin are among humanity’s greatest life-saving inventions. While Alexander Fleming famously discovered penicillin’s effects by accident in 1928, turning the discovery into a usable drug took years of collaboration with other scientists and researchers.

Two members of the Oxford team, Ernst Boris Chain and Howard Florey, conducted successful trials and scaled up production during World War II. A bacteriologist named Mary Hunt found a special strain of mold in a rotting cantaloupe that allowed penicillin to be mass-produced efficiently.

This collective effort, spanning continents and expertise, turned Fleming’s discovery into a weapon against once-deadly bacterial infections.

Examples

• Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin in a petri dish contaminated by mold.
• Ernst Boris Chain and Howard Florey ran critical animal and human trials for penicillin.
• Mary Hunt’s moldy cantaloupe allowed penicillin to be manufactured at scale.

5. From Death on the Roads to Safer Cars

In the mid-20th century, car travel was a leading cause of death. People accepted road accidents as an unavoidable risk, and car manufacturers resisted investing in basic safety features.

Volvo diverged from this attitude by hiring engineer Nils Bohlin, who invented the three-point seat belt. This design drastically reduced car crash fatalities and set a new industry standard. Remarkably, Volvo made the design open to other carmakers, prioritizing public safety over profits.

By listening to engineers and prioritizing safety design, the auto industry shifted toward protecting drivers and passengers.

Examples

• In the 1950s, car accidents were the third leading cause of death in the US.
• Nils Bohlin’s three-point seat belt design cut fatalities by 75%.
• Volvo shared its seat-belt patent freely for the benefit of all.

6. The Nitrate Revolution: Feeding Billions

Without reliable agriculture, feeding a growing global population would have been impossible. The invention of synthetic nitrates by Fritz Haber in 1908 revolutionized farming. Originally developed for explosives, ammonium nitrate as fertilizer made soil much more productive.

Along with fertilizers, factory farming became a method to produce food on a massive scale. Controversial but effective, the process allowed affordable meat production by raising animals intensively and rapidly.

Synthetic fertilizers and factory farming transformed food supply systems, drastically reducing the threat of widespread famine.

Examples

• Fritz Haber’s method of synthesizing nitrate boosted farmland productivity globally.
• Bird and bat droppings were once the world’s main nitrate source for fertilizer and explosives.
• Factory farming lowered the cost of chicken, making protein accessible to more people.

7. Regulations as Lifesavers

The history of improved life expectancy would be incomplete without acknowledging the role of strict regulations. Whether mandating the pasteurization of milk or ensuring drug safety through the FDA, regulations have saved millions of lives.

For instance, mandatory vaccination campaigns and road safety laws like seat-belt requirements demonstrate how governance can work hand-in-hand with science to extend human life.

Strong guidelines ensure that life-saving innovations benefit society widely rather than selectively.

Examples

• FDA strengthened its policies after the thalidomide tragedy.
• Mandatory pasteurization laws eradicated many milk-borne diseases.
• Seatbelt regulations made safe technology accessible to all drivers.

8. Collective Action Against Smallpox

Smallpox plagued humankind for centuries with its devastating effects. Mass vaccination campaigns, powered by global collaboration, led to its eradication in 1980—the first disease to be completely wiped out.

Early inoculation methods laid the groundwork. Along the way, organizations like the World Health Organization used regional campaigns to implement a coordinated strategy for effective vaccination coverage.

This global cooperation showcased humans’ ability to unite against common threats.

Examples

• Inoculation techniques in China predated Western vaccines by centuries.
• WHO coordinated vaccination programs in Africa and Asia during the 20th century.
• By 1980, smallpox was declared eradicated across the globe.

9. From Lone Geniuses to Team Efforts

The breakthroughs discussed in “Extra Life” were not the work of single individuals. Each depended on teamwork, historical discoveries, and shared knowledge.

Whether it’s researchers expanding on Edward Jenner’s work or engineers building safer cars, these achievements highlight the importance of collaboration. Individuals may spark ideas, but progress requires a collective effort.

Human innovation flourishes not through isolation, but through shared dedication.

Examples

• Jenner built on Lady Mary Wortley Montagu’s work and Asian inoculation techniques.
• The discovery of penicillin required collaboration between Oxford scientists and Mary Hunt.
• Global vaccination strategies rely on international cooperation.

Takeaways

1. Advocate for science literacy—understanding the basics of vaccination, car safety, and food production enables informed decision-making.
2. Support policies that prioritize safety and public health, as they often pave the way for long-term benefits.
3. Remember that behind every breakthrough are teams of individuals—encourage collaboration in solving today’s challenges.