Introduction
For centuries, we've been told a story about human nature - that deep down, we're selfish, violent creatures whose worst impulses are only held in check by laws, government, and the thin veneer of civilization. This pessimistic view of humanity has shaped our societies, institutions, and worldviews. But what if it's wrong?
In "Humankind: A Hopeful History," Dutch historian Rutger Bregman challenges this cynical narrative and presents a radically different picture of human nature. Drawing on a wide range of scientific evidence and historical examples, Bregman argues that humans are actually hardwired for kindness, cooperation, and empathy. Our "default" setting is one of trust and friendliness, not suspicion and selfishness.
This book takes readers on a journey through human history and across disciplines like psychology, anthropology, and archaeology to build a compelling case for a more optimistic view of our species. Bregman shows how this new understanding of human nature could transform our approach to education, business, criminal justice, and politics - potentially unlocking solutions to some of our biggest social challenges.
"Humankind" is an ambitious, thought-provoking work that seeks to fundamentally shift how we see ourselves and each other. It's a powerful antidote to cynicism and a call to embrace our better natures. Let's explore the key ideas and evidence Bregman presents to support his hopeful vision of humanity.
Challenging the Conventional Wisdom
Bregman begins by examining some of the most influential theories and experiments that have shaped our negative view of human nature. He shows how many of these widely accepted ideas are based on flawed evidence or have been misinterpreted.
The Myth of Panic in Crises
One persistent belief is that humans revert to selfish, panicked behavior during disasters and crises. This idea was popularized by thinkers like Gustave Le Bon, who argued that crowds become irrational mobs in emergencies. Leaders like Hitler used this theory to justify brutal tactics, believing bombing raids would cause mass panic.
But the evidence tells a different story. When London was bombed during World War II, citizens remained remarkably calm and composed. Instead of descending into chaos, people displayed increased solidarity and prosocial behavior. Alcohol abuse and suicide rates actually went down. Many Londoners later recalled the war years with nostalgia due to the sense of community that emerged.
This pattern has been observed in countless other disasters. Studies by the Disaster Research Center found that altruism and cooperation are the norm in the wake of catastrophes, not selfishness and looting. Yet the myth of panic persists in media narratives and popular imagination.
Debunking Lord of the Flies
William Golding's novel "Lord of the Flies" is often seen as a realistic portrayal of how children (and by extension, humans) would behave without the constraints of civilization - descending into savage tribalism. But is this accurate?
Bregman discovered a real-life "Lord of the Flies" incident from 1965, where six boys were stranded on a remote Pacific island for over a year. Unlike in Golding's fictional account, the real boys cooperated, made a pact against fighting, and remained friends long after their rescue. This suggests Golding's dark vision may say more about his own cynicism than human nature.
The Nocebo Effect of News
Our persistently negative view of humanity is reinforced daily by the news media, which focuses overwhelmingly on disasters, crimes, and conflict. This creates a nocebo effect - the opposite of a placebo. Just as positive expectations can lead to positive outcomes, constant exposure to negative news shapes our expectations and perceptions in harmful ways.
Bregman argues we need to be more mindful of how the news and popular media skew our view of reality. While bad things certainly happen, they are the exception rather than the rule in human affairs. By fixating on the negative, we blind ourselves to the everyday acts of kindness and cooperation that are far more common.
Evidence for Human Goodness
Having challenged some key pillars of the cynical view of humanity, Bregman marshals evidence from multiple fields to support a more positive picture of human nature.
Archaeological Findings
For years, influential thinkers like Steven Pinker argued that prehistoric humans were extremely violent, with estimated murder rates of 14% based on skeletal remains. But more recent archaeological work has debunked these claims. The skeletal evidence Pinker cited mostly came from after the agricultural revolution, not from our hunter-gatherer past.
In fact, there is little evidence of organized violence or warfare in the archaeological record of nomadic hunter-gatherer societies. Cave paintings from this era depict hunting scenes, but not battles between humans. This suggests that for most of human history, we lived relatively peaceful, egalitarian lives.
Evolutionary Biology
Our physical evolution also points to selection for friendliness rather than aggression. Compared to our ancestors and primate relatives, modern humans have softer, more childlike facial features - a process called self-domestication. We've essentially become "Homo puppy," selected for cuteness and friendliness much like dogs.
Our eyes are also uniquely adapted for cooperation. Humans are the only primates with visible white sclera, allowing others to easily track our gaze. This "eye-reading" ability facilitates social coordination and shared attention.
Cognitive Development
Human intelligence seems to have co-evolved with our capacity for cooperation. While we're not particularly smart as individuals compared to other primates, we excel at social learning and cultural transmission of knowledge. Our cognitive abilities are inextricably linked to our social nature.
Studies show that human infants are hardwired from birth to prefer helpers over hinderers. Even before we can speak, we demonstrate an innate moral sense and preference for kind, prosocial behavior in others.
Anthropological Research
Early anthropologists like Napoleon Chagnon portrayed indigenous peoples like the Yanomami as inherently violent "fierce people." But later research revealed these accounts were deeply flawed, based on biased methods and ignoring the destabilizing effects of contact with outsiders.
More careful anthropological work shows that most hunter-gatherer societies are remarkably egalitarian and peaceful. They use humor, shaming, and other social mechanisms to curtail selfish or domineering behavior, rather than resorting to violence.
The Origins of Human Violence
If humans are innately good, how do we account for the undeniable violence and cruelty in human history? Bregman argues that large-scale violence is a relatively recent phenomenon, emerging with the rise of civilization and agriculture around 10,000 years ago.
The Agricultural Revolution
The shift to farming and settled societies created new dynamics that enabled violence to flourish:
- Property and resource scarcity led to conflict over land and food surpluses
- Larger populations allowed for the emergence of hierarchies and concentrated power
- Tribal identities became more fixed, increasing in-group/out-group divisions
- Inequality rose as elites accumulated wealth and power
Archaeological evidence shows a marked increase in fortifications, weapons, and skeletal trauma after the agricultural revolution. This suggests that "civilization" actually made us more violent for a long period.
The Dark Side of Empathy
Bregman explores how even our capacity for empathy can contribute to violence in certain contexts. During World War II, German soldiers fought with remarkable tenacity not because of ideological fervor, but out of loyalty to their comrades. Our ability to form strong bonds with an in-group can blind us to the suffering of those outside it.
This "zoomed in" empathy for those close to us can make it easier to dehumanize distant others. Understanding this dynamic is crucial for addressing tribalism and conflict.
Difficulty of Violence
Despite the increase in organized violence with civilization, Bregman shows that most humans still have a deep aversion to harming others directly. Studies of soldiers in combat reveal that many never fire their weapons or deliberately miss. Even in life-or-death situations, we hesitate to hurt other humans.
This explains why most war casualties historically came from disease, starvation, or impersonal weapons like artillery - not direct combat. Our reluctance to harm others persists even when social pressures push us toward violence.
Rethinking Human Systems
Armed with this new understanding of human nature, Bregman argues we need to radically rethink many of our social systems and institutions. He explores several areas where embracing our prosocial instincts could lead to better outcomes.
Criminal Justice
The punitive approach to crime is based on the assumption that harsh punishment is needed to deter bad behavior. But Bregman shows how more humane prison systems focused on rehabilitation and dignity - like those in Norway - actually produce far better results.
Treating inmates with respect and providing education and opportunities reduces recidivism dramatically. This "utopian" approach turns out to be more effective and cost-efficient than traditional prisons.
Education
Many educational systems are built on distrust, using rigid discipline and high-stakes testing to motivate students. But research shows that intrinsic motivation and self-directed learning produce much better outcomes.
Schools that give students more autonomy and treat them as responsible individuals tend to have higher engagement and academic performance. Trusting students' natural curiosity and desire to learn yields better results than coercion.
Business and Management
Traditional management theory assumes employees are inherently lazy and need to be closely supervised. But companies that embrace trust and give workers more freedom often see huge gains in productivity and innovation.
From manufacturing plants to tech startups, treating employees as responsible adults rather than unruly children leads to more engaged, creative workforces. Our desire to contribute meaningfully is a more powerful motivator than external carrots and sticks.
Politics and Governance
Our political systems are largely built on checks and balances to limit the assumed corruptibility of those in power. While some safeguards are prudent, Bregman argues excessive cynicism about politicians' motives can become a self-fulfilling prophecy.
Experiments with more participatory forms of democracy show that ordinary citizens are often capable of thoughtful, nuanced engagement with complex issues when given the chance. Trusting people's capacity for responsible self-governance could revitalize democracy.
Embracing a New View of Humanity
In the final sections, Bregman reflects on the implications of this more optimistic view of human nature and how we can put it into practice.
Overcoming Cynicism
One of the biggest obstacles to change is our own cynicism. We've internalized such a negative view of humanity that proposals for more trust-based systems often seem naïve or unrealistic.
Bregman argues we need to actively work to overcome this pessimism bias. By seeking out positive stories and examples of human goodness, we can start to shift our mental models. This isn't about ignoring problems, but rather seeing the full picture of human potential.
The Power of Expectations
Our beliefs about human nature tend to be self-fulfilling. If we expect the worst of people, we'll create systems that bring out the worst. But if we expect the best, we're more likely to create conditions for people to flourish.
This "nocebo vs. placebo" effect operates at both individual and societal levels. By consciously choosing to believe in human goodness, we can help catalyze positive change.
A New Realism
Bregman emphasizes that this hopeful view of humanity isn't blind optimism - it's a new realism based on the best available evidence. Understanding our prosocial nature doesn't mean ignoring human flaws or the very real challenges we face.
Rather, it provides a more accurate starting point for addressing social problems. Solutions based on trust and cooperation are often more effective than those rooted in cynicism and control.
Personal Practice
On an individual level, Bregman encourages readers to practice "everyday communism" - small acts of sharing and mutual aid that come naturally to most people. By nurturing our innate helpfulness, we can strengthen the social fabric around us.
He also advocates for more "realistic idealism" - holding onto ambitious visions for positive change while taking practical steps to realize them. Change starts with believing better outcomes are possible.
Conclusion
"Humankind" presents a powerful challenge to the dominant narrative about human nature. By bringing together evidence from across disciplines, Bregman makes a compelling case that cooperation, trust, and kindness are the norm for our species, not the exception.
This new understanding of who we really are as humans has profound implications. It suggests that many of our current approaches to education, business, criminal justice, and governance are fundamentally misaligned with human nature. By redesigning our systems to work with our prosocial instincts rather than against them, we could unlock tremendous positive potential.
Bregman's book is ultimately a call to shed our cynicism and embrace a more hopeful - and more realistic - view of humanity. It's an invitation to reimagine what's possible when we trust in the basic goodness of people. While it doesn't ignore the very real challenges we face, it offers an inspiring vision for how we might build a better world by nurturing the best in human nature.
As we grapple with global threats like climate change, inequality, and political polarization, this message of human possibility is a vital counterweight to despair. "Humankind" reminds us that our capacity for empathy, cooperation, and creative problem-solving is our greatest asset. By believing in each other, we give ourselves the best chance to rise to the enormous challenges of our time.
The book leaves readers with a profound question: What kind of world could we create if we truly believed in the goodness of humanity? It's an inquiry that has the power to reshape how we see ourselves, how we treat each other, and how we approach our shared future on this planet.
Key Takeaways
Humans are naturally inclined towards kindness, cooperation, and trust. This prosocial nature was key to our evolutionary success.
Many influential theories portraying humans as inherently selfish or violent are based on flawed evidence or misinterpretations.
Large-scale violence emerged relatively recently with the rise of agriculture and civilization, not in our evolutionary past.
Our capacity for empathy can have a dark side, blinding us to the suffering of those outside our immediate group.
News media and popular culture reinforce an overly negative view of humanity through selective focus on conflict and disaster.
More trust-based approaches to criminal justice, education, business, and governance often produce better outcomes than control-based systems.
Our beliefs about human nature tend to be self-fulfilling. Expecting the best of people can help bring out their best qualities.
Everyday acts of kindness and cooperation are far more common than the dramatic conflicts that capture headlines.
Embracing a more positive view of humanity isn't naive optimism, but a new realism based on multidisciplinary evidence.
Understanding our prosocial nature provides a stronger foundation for addressing major social and global challenges.
Reflection Questions
How has your own view of human nature been shaped by news, media, and popular culture? Can you think of examples where your personal experiences align or conflict with the dominant narrative?
What are some areas in your own life or work where adopting a more trusting, prosocial approach might lead to better outcomes?
How might key institutions in our society (schools, workplaces, governments) change if they were redesigned based on the assumption that people are fundamentally good?
Can you recall instances where expecting the best of someone brought out their best qualities? How about times when low expectations became self-fulfilling?
What are some practical ways we can nurture and strengthen our natural inclinations towards kindness and cooperation?
How might embracing a more positive view of humanity change our approach to major global challenges like climate change or inequality?
Are there areas where you think a more cynical or cautious view of human nature is still warranted? How do we balance optimism with prudence?
What are some "realistic utopian" ideas you'd like to see implemented in your community or society? What small steps could move us in that direction?
How can we work to overcome our own cynicism and pessimism bias? What practices or habits might help shift our mindset?
If you truly believed in the fundamental goodness of humanity, how might it change your daily interactions and life choices?
Conclusion
Rutger Bregman's "Humankind" offers a radical reframing of human nature that has the potential to transform how we see ourselves and structure our societies. By challenging long-held assumptions about innate human selfishness and violence, Bregman opens up new possibilities for addressing social problems and unlocking human potential.
The book's central argument - that humans are hardwired for kindness and cooperation - is supported by a diverse array of evidence from fields like archaeology, anthropology, psychology, and evolutionary biology. This multidisciplinary approach gives weight to Bregman's case, showing how our prosocial nature is evident across different scales of time and social organization.
Perhaps most powerfully, "Humankind" demonstrates how our beliefs about human nature become self-fulfilling prophecies. The cynical view that people are inherently selfish leads to controlling, punitive systems that bring out the worst in us. In contrast, approaches based on trust and our natural cooperative instincts often yield far better results - in education, criminal justice, business, and beyond.
Bregman is careful to note that this optimistic view isn't about ignoring real problems or human flaws. Rather, it's about seeing the full picture of human capability and potential. Understanding our fundamentally prosocial nature provides a stronger foundation for tackling major challenges, from everyday social friction to global threats like climate change.
Ultimately, "Humankind" is a call to shed our cynicism and embrace what Bregman calls "realistic idealism." It's an invitation to reimagine human possibility and work towards creating the conditions for people to flourish. By aligning our systems and institutions with our cooperative instincts, we can unlock tremendous positive potential.
In a world facing daunting challenges, this message of human goodness and possibility is a vital antidote to despair. It reminds us that our capacity for empathy, creativity, and collective problem-solving is our greatest asset. "Humankind" challenges readers to believe in each other - and in doing so, to expand our sense of what's possible for humanity's shared future.