Leviathan Summary

“What keeps us safe from harm is not our innate goodness, but fear and the social contracts we form to keep society from collapsing into chaos.”

1. Language Shapes Our Understanding of the World

Language is the tool humans use to interpret and interact with the world. It begins with sensory input, through touch, sight, and sound, where physical objects exert “pressure” on the body’s nerves, creating perception. This input forms the basis for thought, enabling humans to assign words to experiences. For example, when someone hears a clock ticking, they translate that sound into the concept of “time.”

Logical reasoning involves arranging words in sequences to identify patterns and predict outcomes. For instance, seeing an egg near a table's edge, a person understands it might fall and break based on prior experiences of the cause-and-effect relationship between gravity and fragility.

Errors in word assignment or reasoning break this process. Without understanding “two” or “three,” for instance, individuals can’t count objects or describe quantities, leading to confusion and inefficiency in communication and decision-making.

Examples

• A child learns the concept of “hot” by touching something warm and associating the sensation with the word.
• Predicting rain by observing dark clouds utilizes the logic of cause-effect patterns.
• Mislabeling an object (e.g., calling a fox a “dog”) results in misunderstandings of its behavior or nature.

2. Human Behavior is Driven by Desire for Power

Understanding cause and effect allows humans to envision not only what they currently have, but what they could obtain. This sparks desire, which drives all human efforts—from accumulating wealth to gaining societal recognition. Hobbes refers to this as the desire for power, encompassing both natural abilities (like strength) and instrumental tools (like money or reputation).

Conflict arises when two people want the same thing, and both cannot have it. Their equality in capability, even if unequal in size or strength, makes the outcome uncertain—triggering fear, rivalry, and often violence. Hobbes argues that this perpetual competition calls for a system to curb it.

Examples

• Rival kings waging war over territorial disputes.
• A thief stealing valuables due to an unmet desire for wealth.
• Conflicts between employees vying for the same promotion.

3. Peace Requires a Social Contract

Hobbes proposes a social contract as the solution to chaos caused by constant rivalries. This agreement ensures mutual surrender of certain rights, such as the right to harm others, in exchange for personal safety. If no one has the right to commit violence, everyone benefits from peace. However, trust is essential. People will only relinquish their right to self-defense if they believe others will too.

If even one person breaks the agreement, fear spreads, causing others to do the same. To prevent societal collapse, individuals must see themselves as parts of a unified whole, ensuring fairness and reducing friction.

Examples

• Laws against theft exemplify shared sacrifice of the “right” to take what belongs to others.
• Pedestrians trusting red lights to stop cars while crossing safely.
• Historical treaties that end wars align nations toward mutual peace.

4. A Strong Sovereign Authority is Necessary

A social contract relies on enforcement to remain valid. Hobbes introduces the concept of the “leviathan,” a collective sovereign power that represents the will of the people. The leviathan serves as the central figure in ensuring justice and upholding agreements among citizens.

This governing body functions like the human body, where the sovereign is the head and the citizens are the organs, muscles, and tissues. The leviathan’s strength is derived from the collective power of the people, uniting individuals under one authority to maintain peace and order.

Examples

• A modern government centralizing its military and police powers.
• Tax systems pooling resources to fund public services.
• Kings in medieval Europe using divine right to justify authority over their subjects.

5. Monarchy is the Most Effective Form of Government

Of the three forms of governance—aristocracy, democracy, and monarchy—Hobbes argues monarchy is superior due to its consistency and unity. A monarch can make quick, decisive choices without needing the approval of others, reducing the likelihood of internal conflict and ensuring a stable rule.

Furthermore, a monarch’s interests align with those of his subjects, as his fortunes depend on their prosperity. Succession in a monarchy is also typically smoother than in other systems, lowering the odds of power struggles that lead to civil unrest.

Examples

• England’s relative stability under monarchs compared to the chaos of Roman democracy.
• Quicker wartime decisions made by kings compared to councils or assemblies.
• Peaceful transfer of power to heirs in dynastic traditions.

6. Sovereignty Requires a Monopoly on Force

To ensure no individual undermines the social contract, the leviathan must have the exclusive authority to use violence and enforce laws. This monopoly on force deters individuals from attempting to seize power or break rules, as they fear punishment from a stronger authority.

Without centralized control, society risks crumbling as each person reverts to self-preservation tactics, leading to unending conflicts. By delegating the use of force to judges, military, and police, the leviathan ensures laws are consistently upheld.

Examples

• Police preventing riots from escalating through the use of controlled force.
• Armies deterring invasions based on their superior firepower.
• Penalties for theft discouraging similar crimes in the future.

7. True Freedom Exists Under a Leviathan

Contrary to intuition, Hobbes argues that humans are freer under governance than in the state of nature. Without laws, people live in constant fear of violence, limiting their ability to thrive. Sovereign rule removes this uncertainty, allowing individuals to pursue happiness without hindrance.

Although individuals give up some rights under the social contract, they sacrifice what no one wanted to keep: the fear of harm. Freed from constant vigilance, people find their liberty in constructive actions, like farming or education.

Examples

• Farmers’ improved productivity after establishing property rights.
• Modern crime laws enabling safer communities.
• Lives saved from terror under strong national governance.

8. Religion Should Not Interfere with Governance

Hobbes warns that conflicting systems of authority, such as church and state, lead to discord and civil war. To maintain peace, religious matters must fall under the sovereign’s power to prevent competing rules from emerging.

Hobbes challenges the church’s claims to divine intervention, arguing that what cannot be physically sensed—like spirits or angels—cannot influence the mortal world. Thus, religious rules cannot govern human actions or supplant laws enacted by the leviathan.

Examples

• Religious councils conflicting with kings, sparking wars in medieval Europe.
• The Protestant Reformation dividing territories based on differing doctrines.
• Laws enforcing unity by centralizing religious authority under state rule.

9. Laws Should Be Grounded in Logic, Not Faith

According to Hobbes, civil laws must be rooted in observable, physical reality rather than superstition or religious belief. Using cause and effect, individuals should construct laws based on shared sensory experiences, ensuring fairness and consistency.

For example, laws against witchcraft, rooted in baseless fears, distract from real societal needs. Instead, governments should focus on promoting factual, mutual understanding to uphold the social contract in harmony.

Examples

• The flawed Salem witch trials accusing individuals of imaginary crimes.
• Evidence-based policies reducing crime rates more effectively than faith-driven initiatives.
• Modern scientific advancements driving laws on climate or health.

Takeaways

1. Build systems of trust and cooperation through mutually agreed-upon rules to reduce fear and encourage peace.
2. Approach governance and societal laws with logic and tangible evidence, avoiding reliance on unproven beliefs.
3. Value the structure of laws and authorities that ensure freedom by removing fear and protecting safety.