Introduction
In "Shoot for the Moon," James Donovan takes readers on an exhilarating journey through the early days of space exploration and the race to put a man on the moon. This book provides a comprehensive look at the Cold War-era competition between the United States and the Soviet Union to achieve dominance in space, culminating in the historic Apollo 11 mission that saw Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin become the first humans to walk on the lunar surface.
Donovan's narrative brings to life the triumphs, tragedies, and incredible technological advancements that characterized this pivotal period in human history. From the launch of Sputnik 1 to the successful return of the Apollo 11 astronauts, the author paints a vivid picture of the determination, ingenuity, and courage that propelled humanity beyond Earth's atmosphere and onto another celestial body.
The Space Race Begins
The story of the space race begins in the context of the Cold War, a time of intense rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union. On October 5, 1957, Americans woke up to shocking news: the Soviets had successfully launched Sputnik 1, the world's first artificial satellite, into orbit around Earth. This 184-pound steel ball, equipped with basic radio transmitters, marked the beginning of the space age and caught the United States completely off guard.
The launch of Sputnik 1 was a wake-up call for the American government and public. It shattered the notion of U.S. technological superiority and raised concerns about national security. The fact that Sputnik passed over American soil seven times a day only heightened these anxieties. The space race was not just about scientific achievement; it was a cultural war, with each side trying to prove the superiority of its ideology and way of life.
In response to the Soviet achievement, the United States attempted to launch its own satellite just four weeks later at Cape Canaveral, Florida. However, this effort ended in a spectacular failure, with the rocket exploding on live television as millions watched. This humiliating setback set the tone for the early years of the space race, with the Soviet Union consistently setting new records and the United States struggling to catch up.
The U.S. did manage to launch its first satellite, Explorer 1, on January 31, 1958. However, this accomplishment was quickly overshadowed by the Soviet launch of Sputnik 3 on May 15, a much larger and more advanced satellite weighing 2,926 pounds. Throughout 1958, both nations continued to launch satellites, with varying degrees of success. Interestingly, while the U.S. openly acknowledged its failures, the Soviet Union kept its unsuccessful attempts secret, creating an illusion of infallibility in their space program.
As 1958 drew to a close, it became clear to both superpowers that the next major goal would be to send a human being into space and return them safely to Earth. On December 17, 1958, the United States announced Project Mercury, its first manned spaceflight program. This project would be run by the newly created National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), a civilian-led agency established just two months earlier.
Project Mercury: America's First Steps into Space
Project Mercury represented America's first concerted effort to put a human in space. The program faced numerous challenges, as spaceflight was an entirely new frontier with countless unknowns. NASA had to develop new technologies, procedures, and safety protocols from scratch.
One of the first tasks was to design a spacecraft capable of carrying a human into space and returning them safely to Earth. This job fell to aerospace engineer Max Faget and his team, who worked in collaboration with Wernher von Braun, the former Nazi rocket scientist who had been brought to the U.S. after World War II. Von Braun had already developed the Mercury-Redstone rocket, which was powerful enough for suborbital flights.
The design of the Mercury capsule posed significant challenges, particularly when it came to reentry into Earth's atmosphere. The team had to find a way for the capsule to withstand temperatures of around 3,500 degrees Fahrenheit and extreme pressures. After much deliberation and testing, they settled on a blunt-nosed shape that would both slow the capsule's descent and create a shock wave to deflect much of the heat.
NASA's culture of meticulous planning, testing, and safety protocols was born during Project Mercury. Almost every system in the Mercury capsule had at least one backup, and every component was tested far beyond what was strictly necessary for the mission. This obsession with safety and reliability would become a hallmark of NASA's approach to space exploration.
The selection of the first astronauts was another crucial aspect of Project Mercury. NASA established strict criteria for applicants: they had to be test pilots with at least 1,500 hours of flying time, have a bachelor's degree in engineering or equivalent, be in superb physical condition, and stand no taller than 5 feet 11 inches to fit in the small capsule. From 110 eligible candidates, 70 applied, and through a grueling selection process, the field was narrowed down to seven men who would become known as the Mercury Seven: Scott Carpenter, Gordon Cooper, John Glenn, Virgil Grissom, Walter Schirra, Alan Shepard, and Donald Slayton.
The training regimen for these astronauts was intense and comprehensive. They underwent rigorous physical and mental tests, spent countless hours in simulators, and received extensive education on a wide range of subjects relevant to spaceflight. The dangers of their mission were clear to everyone involved – at the time, no one expected all seven astronauts to survive Project Mercury.
Before sending humans into space, NASA conducted several test flights using animals. The first primate to fly on a Mercury mission was Sam, a rhesus macaque, who successfully tested the capsule's emergency escape system on December 4, 1959. The final animal mission took place on November 29, 1961, when a chimpanzee named Enos spent three hours in space and returned safely.
Despite these successes, the Soviet Union once again beat the Americans to a major milestone. On April 12, 1961, Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first human to orbit the Earth, completing one full revolution around the planet in his Vostok 1 spacecraft. This achievement was a devastating blow to NASA and another propaganda victory for the USSR.
Undeterred, NASA pressed on with Project Mercury. On May 5, 1961, Alan Shepard became the second human (and first American) to reach space aboard Mercury-Redstone 3 (MR-3). Although his suborbital flight lasted only 15 minutes and didn't achieve orbit like Gagarin's mission, it was a resounding success that reignited American enthusiasm for space exploration. The mission was broadcast live on television to 45 million viewers, marking the beginning of America's love affair with space travel.
In the wake of Shepard's flight, President John F. Kennedy made a bold proclamation. On May 25, 1961, in a speech to Congress, he declared that the United States should commit itself to landing a man on the moon and returning him safely to Earth before the end of the decade. This audacious goal would require an enormous investment of resources and the development of technologies that didn't yet exist. However, it galvanized public support for the space program and set NASA on a new, more ambitious course.
Over the next two years, NASA conducted five more manned Mercury missions, all of which were successful. These missions gradually increased in duration and complexity, building up the agency's experience and confidence in human spaceflight. However, it was clear that reaching the moon would require far more advanced technologies and capabilities than Mercury could provide.
Project Gemini: Bridging the Gap
Even as the final Mercury missions were being completed, NASA was already looking ahead to its next major program: Project Gemini. This new initiative was designed to bridge the gap between the relatively simple Mercury missions and the enormously complex task of landing humans on the moon.
Gemini represented a significant leap forward in almost every aspect of spaceflight. The spacecraft itself was larger and more sophisticated than its Mercury predecessor. Designed by NASA and built by McDonnell Aircraft, the Gemini capsule was 18 feet long, 10 feet wide, and weighed between 7,100 and 8,350 pounds. Unlike Mercury, which could only accommodate one astronaut, Gemini had room for two.
One of the most significant improvements in Gemini was its use of the powerful Titan II rocket as a launch vehicle. With 430,000 pounds of thrust, the Titan II allowed Gemini astronauts to achieve orbital spaceflight, a crucial capability for future lunar missions. Like the Atlas rockets used in later Mercury missions, the Titan II was adapted from an Air Force intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM).
The Gemini spacecraft incorporated numerous technological advancements. It featured rocket thrusters that allowed astronauts to maneuver the craft in space, a capability that would be essential for rendezvous and docking operations. The spacecraft also had a modular design, which allowed for easier testing and repair of individual components.
Another major innovation was the introduction of the Gemini Guidance Computer, designed by IBM. Although primitive by today's standards – it weighed 58 pounds and could store only 4,096 words – this onboard computer was a significant step forward, primarily used for guidance and navigation.
To staff the expanded Gemini program, NASA recruited two new groups of astronauts. The first group, known as the "New Nine," was announced on September 17, 1962, and included Neil Armstrong, who would later become the first person to walk on the moon. A second group of fourteen trainees was announced on October 18, 1963, which included Edwin "Buzz" Aldrin and Michael Collins, who would join Armstrong on the historic Apollo 11 mission.
The training regimen for Gemini astronauts was even more intense than that of their Mercury predecessors. They spent countless hours in simulators, dealing with every conceivable malfunction and emergency scenario. They received extensive lectures on a wide range of technical subjects and underwent survival training in various environments. The workdays often stretched to 12 hours or more, followed by evenings spent studying thick flight manuals.
The Gemini program consisted of twelve missions, each designed to test specific capabilities and technologies needed for a lunar landing. The first manned mission, Gemini 3, launched on March 23, 1965, and tested the spacecraft's maneuverability. Gemini 4 featured the first American spacewalk, with Ed White spending 20 minutes outside the spacecraft, although the Soviets had beaten them to this milestone by three months.
Subsequent Gemini missions pushed the boundaries of what was possible in space. Gemini 5 stayed in orbit for eight days, the duration required for a moon landing. Later missions practiced rendezvous and docking procedures, crucial skills for the planned lunar orbit rendezvous method of landing on the moon.
The lunar orbit rendezvous concept involved sending a spacecraft into orbit around the moon, then using a smaller "bug" to descend to the surface. After the moonwalk, the astronauts would use the bug to launch back into lunar orbit, rendezvous with the main spacecraft, dock, and transfer back before returning to Earth. This complex maneuver had never been attempted before, and the Gemini missions were essential in proving its feasibility.
Gemini 6-A and 7 demonstrated the ability to rendezvous in space, with the two spacecraft maintaining a distance of just 100 yards from each other for three Earth orbits. Gemini 8, crewed by Neil Armstrong and David Scott, achieved the first successful docking in space, connecting with an unmanned Agena Target Vehicle.
These accomplishments marked a turning point in the space race. For the first time, the United States was pulling ahead of the Soviet Union in space technology and capabilities. The Gemini program had successfully developed and demonstrated most of the skills and technologies needed for a moon landing. With Gemini drawing to a close, NASA was ready to embark on its most ambitious project yet: the Apollo program.
The Apollo Program: Tragedy and Triumph
As NASA began work on the Apollo program, it faced its greatest challenge yet: developing a rocket powerful enough to send humans to the moon. This task fell to Wernher von Braun and his team, who had been working on a new family of rockets known as the Saturn series.
The crown jewel of this series was the Saturn V, a behemoth that remains to this day the most powerful rocket ever used. Standing taller than the Statue of Liberty and weighing 50 times more than the early Mercury boosters, the Saturn V could generate an astounding 7.9 million pounds of thrust. This incredible power was necessary to escape Earth's gravity and propel a spacecraft all the way to the moon.
In addition to the new rocket, NASA needed to develop a spacecraft capable of traveling to the moon, landing on its surface, and returning safely to Earth. The result was the Apollo spacecraft, a complex system consisting of three main parts: the Command Module, where the astronauts lived during most of the mission; the Service Module, which provided propulsion, electricity, and other services; and the Lunar Module, a separate vehicle designed to land two astronauts on the moon's surface.
However, the Apollo program got off to a tragic start. On January 27, 1967, during a launch pad test for the Apollo 1 mission, a fire broke out in the Command Module. The pure oxygen atmosphere inside the capsule caused the fire to spread rapidly, and the complex hatch design prevented the three astronauts – Virgil "Gus" Grissom, Ed White, and Roger Chaffee – from escaping. All three men perished in the accident.
This disaster was a severe blow to NASA and the entire nation. It shattered the illusion of invincibility that had built up around the space program after the successes of Mercury and Gemini. The tragedy forced NASA to reevaluate its entire approach to spacecraft design and safety procedures.
In the wake of the Apollo 1 fire, NASA implemented sweeping changes. They created a list of 8,000 potential safety problems that needed to be addressed and made over 1,300 changes to the Apollo spacecraft design. The pure oxygen atmosphere was replaced with a nitrogen-oxygen mix, flammable materials were removed from the capsule, and the hatch was redesigned for quicker opening in emergencies.
Despite the setback, the Apollo program pressed on. After a nine-month hiatus, manned spaceflight resumed with Apollo 7 in October 1968. This mission, which orbited the Earth for 11 days, thoroughly tested the redesigned Command and Service Modules.
The subsequent Apollo missions gradually increased in ambition and complexity. Apollo 8, launched in December 1968, became the first manned mission to orbit the moon. The astronauts on this mission – Frank Borman, James Lovell, and William Anders – were the first humans to see the far side of the moon and to witness an "Earthrise" as our planet came into view from behind the lunar horizon.
Apollo 9 tested the Lunar Module in Earth orbit, while Apollo 10 served as a "dress rehearsal" for the moon landing, testing the Lunar Module in lunar orbit and descending to within 50,000 feet of the moon's surface.
Finally, in July 1969, NASA was ready for the ultimate test: Apollo 11, the mission that would attempt to land humans on the moon for the first time.
Apollo 11: The Eagle Has Landed
The crew selected for this historic mission consisted of Neil Armstrong as commander, Edwin "Buzz" Aldrin as Lunar Module pilot, and Michael Collins as Command Module pilot. Armstrong, a civilian test pilot, was chosen to be the first person to step onto the moon's surface, in part because NASA wanted to emphasize the peaceful, scientific nature of the mission rather than any military connotations.
The training for Apollo 11 was the most intense and comprehensive of any space mission to date. The astronauts spent 14 hours a day, six days a week, preparing for every aspect of the mission. They practiced in simulators that replicated every phase of the flight, from launch to splashdown. They memorized the location and function of hundreds of switches, dials, and controls. They prepared for countless potential emergencies and malfunctions.
On the morning of July 16, 1969, Armstrong, Aldrin, and Collins awoke early, had breakfast, and donned their spacesuits. They took an elevator up the massive launch tower and entered the Apollo spacecraft perched atop the towering Saturn V rocket.
At 9:32 a.m., right on schedule, the Saturn V's massive engines ignited. The rocket slowly lifted off, gradually picking up speed as it ascended through the atmosphere. The launch went flawlessly, with each stage of the rocket separating and igniting as planned. Within minutes, Apollo 11 was in Earth orbit.
After orbiting the Earth twice to check all systems, the crew fired the third stage engine again for the translunar injection (TLI) burn, accelerating the spacecraft to over 24,000 miles per hour and sending it on its way to the moon. The next few days were relatively uneventful, with the crew performing routine tasks and occasional course corrections.
On July 19, Apollo 11 entered lunar orbit. The next day, Armstrong and Aldrin entered the Lunar Module, which they had named Eagle, and separated from the Command Module, where Collins remained in orbit around the moon.
The descent to the lunar surface was tense and fraught with challenges. Several alarms sounded in the Lunar Module, indicating that the computer was being overloaded with tasks. Mission Control quickly determined that these alarms were not critical and gave the go-ahead to continue the landing.
As they neared the surface, Armstrong realized that their planned landing site was strewn with large boulders. Taking manual control of the Eagle, he piloted the craft to a smoother area, landing with less than 30 seconds of fuel remaining.
At 4:17 p.m. Eastern Time on July 20, 1969, Armstrong radioed the now-famous words to Mission Control: "Houston, Tranquility Base here. The Eagle has landed." Humanity had achieved the seemingly impossible – we had landed on another world.
After several hours of preparation, Armstrong opened the hatch and began his descent down the ladder. At 10:56 p.m., he stepped onto the lunar surface, uttering the immortal words, "That's one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind."
Aldrin joined Armstrong on the surface about 20 minutes later. Together, they spent about two and a half hours outside the Lunar Module, collecting rock samples, taking photographs, and setting up scientific experiments. They also planted an American flag and left behind a plaque that read, "Here men from the planet Earth first set foot upon the Moon. July 1969 A.D. We came in peace for all mankind."
After completing their tasks on the surface, Armstrong and Aldrin returned to the Lunar Module and rested for a few hours before beginning their ascent back to lunar orbit. The ascent was particularly nerve-wracking, as there was no backup plan if the Lunar Module's engine failed to fire.
Fortunately, the ascent went smoothly, and Eagle successfully rendezvoused and docked with the Command Module, where Collins had been orbiting alone for over 24 hours. After transferring the lunar samples and other equipment, Eagle was jettisoned, and the reunited crew began their journey back to Earth.
The return trip was largely uneventful, with the crew making only minor course corrections. On July 24, the Command Module separated from the Service Module and reentered Earth's atmosphere. The capsule splashed down in the Pacific Ocean, where it was recovered by the USS Hornet.
The Apollo 11 astronauts were immediately placed in quarantine as a precaution against any potential lunar pathogens. After three weeks, when it was clear they had not brought back any moon germs, they were released to a hero's welcome. Parades were held in their honor in New York, Chicago, and Los Angeles, and they embarked on a world tour that highlighted the global significance of their achievement.
The Legacy of Apollo 11
The successful moon landing of Apollo 11 marked the pinnacle of the space race and represented one of the greatest achievements in human history. It fulfilled President Kennedy's bold promise and demonstrated the incredible progress that could be made when a nation committed its resources and willpower to a singular goal.
The Apollo program continued with several more lunar landings, each pushing the boundaries of exploration and scientific discovery on the moon. Apollo 12 achieved a precise landing near the site of an earlier unmanned probe. Apollo 13, while failing to land on the moon due to an onboard explosion, became a triumph of human ingenuity and perseverance as NASA worked tirelessly to bring the crew home safely.
The later Apollo missions, particularly Apollo 15, 16, and 17, focused more on scientific exploration, with astronauts spending more time on the lunar surface and using a lunar rover to cover greater distances. Apollo 17, the final mission of the program, saw geologist Harrison Schmitt become the first and only scientist to walk on the moon.
The Apollo program had far-reaching impacts beyond just the field of space exploration. It spurred technological advancements in areas such as computers, materials science, and telecommunications. Many of the technologies developed for Apollo found applications in everyday life, from fireproof materials to improved water purification systems.
The program also had profound cultural and societal impacts. The famous "Earthrise" photo taken during Apollo 8, showing our planet rising above the lunar horizon, is credited with helping to kickstart the environmental movement by providing a new perspective on the fragility and uniqueness of Earth.
The Apollo missions also served as an inspiration to generations of scientists, engineers, and explorers. Many who watched the moon landing as children were inspired to pursue careers in science and technology, leading to further advancements in various fields.
However, the end of the Apollo program also marked the end of an era in space exploration. With the primary goal of beating the Soviets to the moon accomplished, public and political support for expensive manned space missions beyond Earth orbit waned. NASA's focus shifted to projects in low Earth orbit, such as Skylab (America's first space station) and the Space Shuttle program.
Conclusion
"Shoot for the Moon" provides a comprehensive and engaging account of one of the most exciting periods in human history. From the early days of the space race to the triumphant moon landing of Apollo 11, James Donovan's narrative captures the spirit of adventure, the technological challenges, and the human drama that characterized this era.
The book reminds us of the incredible achievements that are possible when a nation commits itself to a bold, seemingly impossible goal. The Apollo program represented the culmination of years of scientific advancement, engineering innovation, and human courage. It stands as a testament to what can be accomplished through determination, ingenuity, and teamwork.
At the same time, Donovan doesn't shy away from the costs and controversies associated with the space program. The tragic Apollo 1 fire serves as a sobering reminder of the dangers inherent in pushing the boundaries of human exploration. The enormous financial investment required for the moon landings was questioned by some who felt the money could be better spent addressing problems on Earth.
Despite these challenges, the legacy of Apollo continues to inspire. As we face new global challenges in the 21st century, from climate change to pandemics, the story of how we went from the first satellite launch to walking on the moon in just 12 years serves as a powerful reminder of human potential.
Today, as both national space agencies and private companies set their sights on returning to the moon and eventually reaching Mars, the lessons and achievements of the Apollo era remain relevant. The spirit of exploration, the drive to push beyond known limits, and the ability to unite behind a common goal are as important now as they were during the space race.
"Shoot for the Moon" not only tells the story of how we reached the moon, but also why it mattered then and why it still matters today. It's a story of human achievement, of overcoming seemingly insurmountable obstacles, and of expanding the boundaries of what we thought possible. In doing so, it continues to inspire us to reach for the stars and to believe that with enough determination and ingenuity, even the most audacious dreams can become reality.