Introduction
In "Superior: The Return of Race Science," Angela Saini takes readers on a journey through the history of race science, exploring how it has evolved and persisted despite being thoroughly debunked. The book examines the origins of racial categorization, its use to justify colonialism and oppression, and its modern-day resurgence in various forms. Saini challenges the notion that race has any biological basis, arguing instead that it is a social construct with dangerous implications when misused in scientific contexts.
The Allure of Origins
We humans have a deep-seated fascination with our origins. When we visit museums, many of us are drawn to exhibits that showcase artifacts from our ancestral cultures. This desire to connect with our roots is natural, but it can also lead us down problematic paths when we start to conflate cultural heritage with biological race.
Saini points out that while modern science has conclusively shown that race is not a biological reality, the idea persists in both popular culture and, worryingly, in some scientific circles. The book sets out to explore why this is the case and to debunk the myths that continue to give race science a veneer of legitimacy.
Archaeology and Racial Beliefs
The field of archaeology has often been used to support racist beliefs, even if unintentionally. Saini discusses how the study of human origins can easily play into notions of racial superiority.
For instance, the "out of Africa" hypothesis, which posits that all modern humans descended from ancestors who migrated from Africa around 100,000 years ago, is widely accepted in the West and Africa. However, in China, the "multiregional hypothesis" is more popular. This theory suggests that humans evolved independently in different parts of the world, potentially supporting the idea of distinct racial groups.
Saini argues that such theories, while seemingly innocuous, can be weaponized to justify racial hierarchies. She traces this back to the Enlightenment period when European philosophers and early archaeologists set the standard for what it meant to be human, focusing primarily on European fossils and characteristics. This Eurocentric view was then used to justify the subjugation of indigenous populations during colonization.
The author emphasizes that we may never know the exact origin story of humanity. More importantly, she argues that we as a society have already decided that all humans deserve equal rights, regardless of their origins. This ethical stance should be enough to render debates about racial superiority moot.
Science as a Mask for Racism
One of the central themes of "Superior" is how racism has often disguised itself as science throughout history. Saini illustrates this point with several examples, showing how seemingly objective scientific endeavors have been tainted by the biases of their time.
She begins with Carl Linnaeus, the Swedish botanist famous for creating the system of categorizing living organisms. Linnaeus extended his classification system to humans, dividing them into categories based on physical appearance. However, his system quickly devolved into a hierarchy, ranking different human "types" based on preexisting notions of superiority.
Saini also discusses how European colonizers used biology to justify their beliefs about racial superiority. For instance, she mentions Samuel Cartwright, an American doctor who invented a condition called "drapetomania" – a supposed disease that caused enslaved black people to want to run away. This pseudoscientific diagnosis was used to reinforce the idea that enslavement was the natural state for black people.
As scientific theories evolved, so did the justifications for racism. Saini explains how Darwin's theory of evolution gave rise to eugenics, the misguided belief that humans could be selectively bred to enhance desirable traits. Eugenics gained mainstream acceptance in many parts of the world, including Nazi Germany, where it was used to justify the systematic murder of Jewish people and other minorities.
The author emphasizes that these are not just historical curiosities. The legacy of eugenics persisted well into the 20th century, with involuntary sterilization laws remaining on the books in some US states until the 1970s and in Japan until 1996.
The Discrediting of Race Science
Saini charts how race science began to lose credibility in the aftermath of World War II. The horrors of the Holocaust forced many to reconsider the dangerous implications of racial theories. Scientists found their race-based papers rejected by mainstream journals, and anthropologists began to reexamine and discredit previous racial classifications.
In 1949, UNESCO was formed with the explicit goal of combating racism and promoting human unity. This marked a significant shift in the scientific community's approach to race.
Saini highlights key scientific discoveries that further undermined race science. In 1942, anthropologist Ashley Montagu argued that all humans were genetically very similar. This was later confirmed by geneticist Richard Lewontin in 1972, who showed that there is more genetic diversity within racial groups than between them.
The author cites a more recent study from 2002 that reinforces these findings. According to genetics professor Mark Jobling, even if a catastrophe wiped out all but the population of a single country, 85 percent of human genetic diversity would still be preserved. This underscores how closely related all humans are, genetically speaking.
Saini explains that the visual differences we associate with race are primarily due to environmental adaptations and the founder effect, where small groups of migrants carried certain characteristics with them as they populated new areas.
The Persistence of Race Science
Despite being thoroughly discredited, race science has managed to persist in various forms. Saini explores how some scientists and ideologues have attempted to keep these ideas alive, often under the guise of more palatable terms.
She discusses the creation of the Mankind Quarterly in 1960 by Reginald Ruggles Gates, a race scientist frustrated by mainstream journals rejecting his work. This publication, which still exists today, presents itself as a legitimate scientific journal but often uses its "evidence" to make political arguments supporting racial hierarchies.
Saini introduces the concept of "race realism," a term adopted by modern proponents of race science to lend credibility to their views. She mentions Jared Taylor, a white supremacist who uses the language of "race realism" to present his racist views as unbiased scientific facts.
The author argues that race science persists because it serves a political purpose for some groups. By funding research that aims to establish biological differences between races, these groups hope to justify policies that reinforce inequality. Saini warns that by conflating race with culture, these "race realists" attempt to make their arguments more palatable to a public that generally rejects biological racism but accepts cultural differences.
The Evolution of Race Science Vocabulary
Saini delves into how the language of race science has evolved over time, adapting to changing social norms while still promoting similar ideas. She uses the example of "human biodiversity," a term that sounds innocuous but is often used as a modern euphemism for race science.
The author discusses the Human Genome Diversity Project, launched by geneticist Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza. While Cavalli-Sforza was an avowed antiracist, his project to map genetic variations among human populations raised concerns about inadvertently providing fodder for racist ideologies.
Saini points out how terms like "population" have replaced "race," and "human variation" has replaced "racial difference." She argues that while the vocabulary has changed, the underlying desire to categorize and separate people remains, and can still be used to promote divisive ideologies.
The key takeaway is that it's not the specific terms or differences that matter to racists, but the very existence of categorization. Saini suggests that to truly move past race science, we need to resist the urge to categorize people based on superficial differences altogether.
Race and Identity
Saini explores how deeply intertwined our ideas of race are with our sense of identity, and how this can lead to dangerous misconceptions. She uses the example of the Cheddar Man, an ancient skeleton found in England that was initially reconstructed with light skin. When genetic analysis revealed that the Cheddar Man likely had dark skin, it caused a stir among some British people who had a fixed idea of their ancestral identity.
The author emphasizes that our modern notions of race based on physical appearance often don't align with historical realities. She points out that genetic studies have shown our ancestors looked quite different from modern populations, and that traits like skin color have changed multiple times throughout human history.
Saini warns about the dangers of trying to adjust history to fit our current narratives about race and identity. She cites the example of Hindu nationalists in India attempting to rewrite history to align with religious myths, even going so far as to instruct archaeologists and geneticists to find evidence for mythical beings and events.
This manipulation of history and science to fit a narrative of racial or cultural superiority can have severe consequences. Saini mentions how such ideologies have been used to justify the persecution of religious minorities in India, including horrific acts of violence.
IQ and Race
One of the most contentious issues in the realm of race science is the study of IQ differences between racial groups. Saini tackles this topic head-on, explaining that while IQ gaps do exist both globally and within countries, these differences can be almost entirely attributed to environmental factors rather than genetics.
The author discusses various studies on IQ, including Thomas Bouchard's twin studies from 1979, which suggested a strong genetic component to intelligence. However, Saini points out that more recent research indicates that parental IQ scores only account for about 15% of the variance in their children's IQ scores.
She emphasizes the enormous impact of environmental factors on intelligence. In the United States, for example, studies have consistently shown that black Americans face significant economic and social disadvantages compared to white Americans. Saini cites a 1986 study that found black children adopted into middle-class white families had IQs 13 points higher than those adopted into black families, highlighting the role of socioeconomic factors in cognitive development.
The author argues that socioeconomic status, rather than race, has a far greater influence on IQ. She points to the UK, where working-class white boys achieve the lowest IQ scores, despite being white in a predominantly white country. This further undermines the notion of inherent racial differences in intelligence.
Genetic Determinism in Healthcare
Saini explores how genetic determinism – the idea that we are primarily defined by our genes – continues to influence healthcare and biology, often in problematic ways. She traces this back to Gregor Mendel's pea plant experiments, which, while groundbreaking, created an oversimplified view of genetics that doesn't account for environmental factors.
The author argues that despite scientific evidence to the contrary, many people still cling to genetic determinism, particularly when it comes to health issues. She discusses how certain diseases are often mischaracterized as being specific to certain races, when in reality, environmental and social factors play a much larger role.
For example, Saini mentions schizophrenia, which has been described as a "black disease" in the UK due to higher diagnosis rates among people of Caribbean ancestry. However, genetic studies have found only a minimal genetic component to the disorder.
Similarly, she discusses hypertension, which is twice as common among black Americans compared to other groups in the US. Saini points out that this isn't due to a genetic predisposition, as evidenced by the fact that people in Africa have the lowest rates of hypertension globally. Instead, the higher rates among black Americans are likely due to dietary factors and the unique stresses of being black in America.
The author argues that the persistence of genetic determinism in healthcare is partly due to its appeal as an explanation that absolves society of responsibility for health disparities. However, she emphasizes that this view ignores the real problems of racism, bias, and social inequality that contribute to these health issues.
The Danger of Racial Categories
Throughout "Superior," Saini consistently emphasizes the dangers of categorizing people based on race. She argues that these categories, while socially constructed, have real and often devastating consequences when given scientific legitimacy.
The author points out that racial categories are fluid and have changed throughout history. What we consider distinct races today may not have been seen as such in the past, and may not be in the future. This fluidity underscores the arbitrary nature of racial classifications.
Saini warns that even well-intentioned scientific studies that focus on racial differences can inadvertently reinforce harmful stereotypes and provide ammunition for racist ideologies. She argues that scientists need to be extremely cautious when studying human variation, always considering the potential social and political implications of their work.
The book also discusses how the focus on racial categories in medicine can lead to misdiagnosis and inappropriate treatment. By assuming that certain diseases are inherently linked to specific races, doctors may overlook environmental and social factors that are the true causes of health disparities.
Saini concludes that our insatiable need to categorize people is at the root of many of these issues. She suggests that moving beyond racial categories – in science, medicine, and society at large – is crucial for addressing real issues of inequality and discrimination.
The Responsibility of Scientists
"Superior" places a significant emphasis on the responsibility of scientists in shaping public understanding of race. Saini argues that while most scientists today reject the concept of biological race, the legacy of race science continues to influence both scientific research and public perception.
The author calls on scientists to be more proactive in challenging racist ideologies that attempt to use scientific language for legitimacy. She points out that silence or neutrality from the scientific community can be interpreted as tacit approval of these ideas.
Saini also discusses the importance of diversity within the scientific community itself. She argues that a more diverse group of researchers is likely to ask different questions and challenge long-held assumptions, leading to more comprehensive and unbiased scientific understanding.
The book emphasizes the need for scientists to consider the broader implications of their work, particularly when it comes to studies of human variation. Saini suggests that researchers should always be aware of how their findings might be misused or misinterpreted to support racist ideologies.
The Role of Media and Education
Saini explores how media representation and education play crucial roles in perpetuating or challenging racial stereotypes and misconceptions. She discusses how news media often report on scientific studies related to race in sensationalist ways, potentially reinforcing harmful stereotypes.
The author emphasizes the importance of science education in combating racist ideologies. She argues that a better understanding of genetics and human variation among the general public could help counteract the simplistic and often misleading narratives promoted by race scientists.
Saini also discusses the responsibility of journalists and science communicators in accurately reporting on issues related to race and genetics. She calls for more nuanced and contextual reporting that doesn't oversimplify complex scientific concepts or ignore the potential social implications of research findings.
The Future of Race Science
In the concluding sections of "Superior," Saini contemplates the future of race science and our understanding of human diversity. She acknowledges that while mainstream science has rejected biological concepts of race, the allure of racial categorization persists in various forms.
The author suggests that moving forward, we need to find ways to celebrate human diversity without falling into the trap of racial essentialism. She argues for a more nuanced understanding of human variation that acknowledges both our shared humanity and our individual uniqueness.
Saini also discusses the potential impact of new genetic technologies, such as gene editing, on our understanding of race and human variation. She warns that these technologies could potentially be misused to reinforce racial stereotypes or even attempt to create "designer babies" with specific racial characteristics.
The book concludes with a call for vigilance against the resurgence of race science in all its forms. Saini argues that combating these ideas requires not just scientific rebuttals, but also a broader societal commitment to equality and human rights.
Conclusion
"Superior: The Return of Race Science" by Angela Saini is a comprehensive exploration of the history, persistence, and dangers of race science. Through meticulous research and compelling storytelling, Saini exposes the flawed foundations of racial categorization and its harmful consequences.
The book serves as a stark reminder that while race may not be a biological reality, it remains a powerful social construct with real-world implications. Saini effectively demonstrates how racist ideologies have adapted over time, often co-opting scientific language to lend themselves credibility.
By tracing the evolution of race science from its origins in colonial-era pseudoscience to its modern incarnations, Saini reveals the stubborn persistence of these ideas despite being thoroughly debunked by mainstream science. She highlights how environmental and social factors, rather than genetics, are the primary drivers of differences between human populations.
"Superior" is not just a historical account or a scientific debunking of race science. It's also a call to action, urging scientists, journalists, policymakers, and the general public to be vigilant against the misuse of science to justify racism and inequality. Saini emphasizes the need for a more nuanced understanding of human diversity that celebrates our differences without resorting to harmful categorizations.
Ultimately, "Superior" challenges readers to confront their own biases and assumptions about race. It encourages a more critical approach to scientific claims about human differences and a greater appreciation for the complex interplay of genetics, environment, and culture in shaping who we are.
In an era where racial tensions continue to simmer and genetic research is advancing rapidly, Saini's book provides a timely and crucial perspective. It reminds us that the concept of race is a relatively recent human invention, and one that has caused immeasurable harm. By understanding the history and pseudoscience behind racial categorization, we can work towards a future where human diversity is truly celebrated without being used as a tool for division and oppression.