The Things We Make

Introduction

In "The Things We Make," Bill Hammack takes us on a fascinating journey through the world of engineering, revealing the hidden genius behind some of humanity's most impressive and ordinary inventions. From ancient cathedrals to modern-day soda cans, Hammack explores how the engineering method has shaped our world and continues to drive innovation.

This book isn't just for engineers or tech enthusiasts. It's for anyone who's ever wondered how things work or marveled at human ingenuity. Hammack breaks down complex concepts into easily digestible ideas, showing us how the engineering method can be applied to solve problems in our everyday lives.

As we dive into the key ideas of "The Things We Make," we'll discover the secrets behind some of history's most impressive structures, learn how engineers decide what's best, and explore the complex relationship between engineering and science. We'll also challenge the myth of the lone inventor and see how innovation is often a collaborative effort spanning generations.

So, let's embark on this journey to understand the engineering method and how it shapes the world around us.

The Engineering Method: A Timeless Approach to Problem-Solving

Ancient Wisdom, Modern Applications

Imagine standing in front of a towering cathedral, its spires reaching towards the heavens. How did people centuries ago, with limited technology and scientific knowledge, create such awe-inspiring structures? The answer lies in the engineering method, a problem-solving approach that has stood the test of time.

In 13th century Europe, master masons were revered for their ability to construct magnificent cathedrals. These craftsmen might not have been able to solve complex mathematical equations, but they possessed something equally valuable: practical knowledge and intuition honed through years of experience.

One of the key challenges these masons faced was determining the ideal thickness for cathedral walls. Too thin, and the structure would collapse; too thick, and it would waste space and resources. Their solution? A simple yet ingenious technique using a rope.

The masons would drape a rope over the arch of the cathedral, fold it into three equal parts, and use these markings to divide the arch into thirds. By measuring the distance from these marks to the wall and extending it by an equal measure, they could determine the optimal wall thickness for that particular arch.

This method, while not based on advanced calculations, was a perfect example of the engineering method in action. It combined:

1. Practical experience
2. Rules of thumb
3. Creative problem-solving
4. Adaptability to specific situations

The masons didn't stop there. They continually monitored their work, looking for cracks or weaknesses. If they found any, they'd reinforce the structure with stronger stone. Those with high-quality materials might reduce wall thickness, while those with less reliable stone would add extra reinforcement.

This approach - using available resources, working within constraints, and adapting to uncertainty - is the essence of the engineering method. It's not about having perfect knowledge or the most advanced technology. Instead, it's about finding practical solutions to real-world problems using the tools and information at hand.

The Chess Game Analogy

Think of the engineering method like a chess game. A good chess player doesn't just focus on winning immediately. Instead, they work on controlling the center of the board, setting up a strong position that increases their chances of success. Similarly, engineers use rules of thumb and practical knowledge to set themselves up for success, even if they don't have a complete picture of the final solution.

This approach allows engineers to make progress in the face of uncertainty. They know they might make mistakes along the way, but they're prepared to learn from these errors and adjust their approach accordingly.

The Universal Nature of the Engineering Method

What's remarkable about the engineering method is its universality. Whether you're looking at the construction techniques of ancient civilizations or the latest technological innovations, you'll find this same pragmatic, adaptive approach at work.

The Incas, for example, used similar principles when building their impressive stone structures. They didn't have advanced mathematical formulas, but they had generations of knowledge about how to work with stone and adapt their techniques to the challenging mountain terrain.

In modern times, we see the engineering method at work in fields as diverse as software development, product design, and even business strategy. It's about finding practical solutions, learning from experience, and continually refining approaches based on real-world feedback.

Applying the Engineering Method in Everyday Life

The beauty of the engineering method is that it's not just for engineers. We can all benefit from this approach in our daily lives. Here are a few ways to apply the engineering method to everyday problems:

1. Start with what you know: Use your existing knowledge and experience as a foundation.
2. Break big problems into smaller ones: Tackle complex issues piece by piece.
3. Use rules of thumb: Look for general principles that can guide your decision-making.
4. Be prepared to adapt: Stay flexible and ready to change your approach based on new information.
5. Learn from mistakes: Don't be afraid to make errors; use them as opportunities to improve.

By adopting this mindset, we can approach challenges more effectively, whether we're organizing a project at work, planning a home renovation, or even managing our personal finances.

The Quest for the Ideal: How Engineers Decide What's Best

The Concept of "Average" in Design

When we use everyday objects like telephones, thermostats, or even office chairs, we rarely stop to think about why they're designed the way they are. But behind each of these designs lies a fascinating story of how engineers determine what's "best" for the majority of users.

Take, for example, the work of Henry Dreyfuss, an industrial designer who revolutionized home and office products in the 1930s. Dreyfuss faced a common challenge: how to design products that would work well for as many people as possible. His solution? Turn to data.

Dreyfuss collected anthropometric data from the U.S. Army, which provided measurements of the "average" American man and woman. Using this information, he created products designed for this hypothetical average person. The result was a range of products that, while not perfect for everyone, worked well for a large majority of users.

Consider the Model 302 desk telephone. Its design was based on the average distance between a person's mouth and ear. Similarly, Dreyfuss's Honeywell thermostat was designed to be easily readable and operable by people of average height and vision. These designs became so successful that they set industry standards for years to come.

The Limitations of "Average"

While designing for the average person can create widely usable products, it's important to recognize the limitations of this approach. Engineers and designers don't work in a vacuum; they're influenced by their own cultural backgrounds, experiences, and biases. This can lead to designs that, while suitable for many, may exclude or inconvenience others.

For instance:

1. Crash test dummies modeled on male bodies may not accurately represent the safety needs of women and children.
2. Game controllers designed for two-handed use may be difficult for people with certain disabilities to operate.
3. Office temperatures set for male comfort often leave women feeling cold due to differences in metabolic rates.
4. Voice recognition software may struggle with accents different from those of its creators.
5. Internet algorithms might be biased towards the types of inputs their designers are most likely to use.

These examples highlight an important point: what's "best" for one group may not be ideal for another. Engineers must constantly strive to broaden their perspective and consider a diverse range of users when designing products and systems.

Challenging Assumptions of Fairness

The engineering mindset can even challenge our notions of what's fair or equal. For example, most people would agree that allocating the same number of toilets to men and women in an office building is fair. However, when you consider that women typically spend about twice as long in the restroom as men, this "equal" distribution may actually result in longer wait times for women.

This kind of insight is what led Georgena Terry to revolutionize bicycle design for women. Using anthropometric data similar to what Dreyfuss used, Terry realized that women's body proportions differ significantly from men's. Women typically have longer upper bodies relative to their overall height, and their center of body mass is different.

Armed with this knowledge, Terry designed bicycles specifically for women. She shortened the distance from the seat to the handlebars and narrowed the handlebars themselves. These changes allowed women to ride in a more upright, comfortable position. The result? Millions of women have found Terry's bicycles more comfortable and easier to ride than traditional designs.

The Engineer's Perspective on "Best"

So how do engineers decide what's best? The answer is that "best" is always contextual. It depends on:

1. The specific problem being solved
2. The resources available
3. The constraints of the situation
4. The needs and characteristics of the users

For an engineer, the best solution is often the one that works most effectively within these parameters. It's about finding the optimal balance between different factors, rather than achieving perfection in any single area.

This approach leads to constant innovation and improvement. As our understanding of user needs grows, as technology advances, and as societal values evolve, engineers continue to push the boundaries of what's possible, striving for solutions that are better and more inclusive.

Applying the Engineering Mindset to Everyday Life

While we may not all be designing products or systems, we can apply this engineering mindset to our own lives and decision-making processes:

1. Question assumptions: Just because something has always been done a certain way doesn't mean it's the best way.
2. Consider diverse perspectives: Think about how different people might be affected by a decision or solution.
3. Look for data: Where possible, base decisions on real information rather than guesswork.
4. Be willing to iterate: The first solution may not be the best one. Be prepared to refine and improve over time.
5. Balance trade-offs: Recognize that there may not be a perfect solution, but rather an optimal one given the circumstances.

By adopting this approach, we can make more informed decisions and create solutions that work better for more people.

Navigating Constraints: How Engineers Tackle Limited Resources and Uncertainty

The Kelek: A Lesson in Creative Problem-Solving

Imagine you're a wine trader in ancient Mesopotamia, faced with a daunting task: delivering 18,000 bottles of wine to a neighboring king. The conventional options - boats or caravans - are too risky or impractical. What do you do?

This was the exact situation faced by a senior official in Carchemish, a city-state near the Turkey-Syria border, around 1700 BCE. The solution they came up with is a perfect example of engineering ingenuity in the face of limited resources and uncertainty.

The traders built a kelek - a 50-foot square raft made from large tree trunks and protected by inflated goatskins. They loaded it with the wine and, in a stroke of brilliance, filled the remaining space with live donkeys. Upon reaching their destination, they not only delivered the wine but also sold the raft's wood at a premium (as good wood was scarce in the destination city) and used the donkeys to transport the dried goatskins back home.

This solution exemplifies several key principles of engineering:

1. Use of available materials: They worked with what they had - wood, goatskins, and donkeys.
2. Multi-purpose design: The raft served as both transportation and a valuable commodity.
3. Efficiency: By including donkeys, they ensured a means of return transportation.
4. Risk management: The design mitigated the risks of both river and land travel.

Adapting to the Environment

The kelek story illustrates a fundamental principle of engineering: the best solutions are often those that adapt to the specific environment and resources at hand. This principle applies across all fields of engineering and design.

For instance, the shape and form of a car are largely determined by the type of fuel it uses. As we transition to electric vehicles, we're seeing significant changes in car design, reflecting the different requirements and possibilities of this new power source.

Similarly, in architecture, the materials available in a region often dictate building styles. In wooded areas, timber frame houses are common, while in stone-rich regions, masonry construction prevails.

The Art of Trade-Offs

Engineers constantly face situations where they must balance competing priorities. A classic example of this is the humble soda can.

At first glance, a cuboid shape might seem more efficient for packing and shipping. However, engineers opted for a cylindrical design for several reasons:

1. Strength: The curved surface of a cylinder is inherently stronger than the sharp edges of a cube, allowing for thinner walls and less material use.
2. Pressure resistance: Cylindrical shapes distribute internal pressure more evenly, reducing the risk of explosion.
3. Manufacturing ease: Cylindrical cans are easier to produce and fill at high speeds.
4. Stackability: The well-designed top allows cylindrical cans to stack almost as efficiently as cubes.

This example shows how engineers must consider multiple factors - strength, material use, manufacturing processes, and practical use - to arrive at an optimal solution.

Predicting Outcomes and Fine-Tuning

A key aspect of the engineering method is the ability to predict outcomes based on available data and then fine-tune the process as new information becomes available. This involves:

1. Gathering relevant data
2. Making informed predictions
3. Testing those predictions
4. Analyzing results
5. Adjusting the approach based on findings

This iterative process allows engineers to navigate uncertainty and improve their solutions over time. It's a approach that can be applied not just to technical problems, but to any situation where you're trying to achieve a goal with limited information and resources.

Applying Engineering Principles to Everyday Challenges

While we may not all be designing soda cans or building ancient rafts, we can apply these engineering principles to our daily lives:

1. Work with what you have: Instead of lamenting a lack of resources, focus on making the most of what's available.
2. Look for multi-purpose solutions: Can one solution solve multiple problems?
3. Adapt to your environment: Consider the specific context of your challenge and tailor your approach accordingly.
4. Embrace trade-offs: Recognize that perfect solutions are rare. Focus on finding the best balance given your priorities and constraints.
5. Predict, test, and adjust: Make informed guesses, try them out, and be ready to change course based on results.

By adopting this mindset, we can become more effective problem-solvers in all areas of life, from managing personal projects to navigating professional challenges.

The Synergy of Science and Engineering: More Than Just Applied Science

The Story of Charles Parsons and the Steam Turbine

To understand the relationship between science and engineering, let's look at the story of Charles Parsons and his revolutionary steam turbine engine. This invention not only changed naval warfare but also became the standard for power generation that we still use today in coal, gas, and nuclear plants.

Parsons grew up surrounded by mechanics and innovation. His father, William Parsons, was an astronomer who owned the world's largest telescope at the time. Charles was exposed to glassblowers, blacksmiths, and various machines from a young age, fostering a deep curiosity about how things worked.

Unlike many engineers of his time, Parsons graduated from college with a strong foundation in math and physics. This scientific knowledge would prove crucial in his quest to create a more efficient steam engine.

Parsons' goal was ambitious: he wanted to design a steam engine that was faster, more efficient, used less coal, required less material and maintenance, and produced less noise. His hypothesis, based on his understanding of physics, was that if he could slow down the speed at which steam flowed through a turbine just enough, the engine would have more time to extract energy from the hot steam.

To test this hypothesis, Parsons turned to the work of 19th-century scientists who had studied the properties of steam. He particularly focused on the work of William John Macquorn Rankine, the founder of thermodynamics. This scientific knowledge allowed Parsons to understand what was possible and what would be a waste of time, guiding his experiments and helping him reach a solution more quickly.

After a decade of trial and error, Parsons successfully built a system that could slow down the passage of steam just enough to extract more energy, creating a more efficient engine. His steam turbine was so impressive that he managed to sneak his ship into the lineup at Queen Victoria's Diamond Jubilee naval review, where it outpaced the most formidable Navy ships of the day.

Science as a Tool, Not the Whole Toolbox

Parsons' story illustrates a crucial point about the relationship between science and engineering: science is a powerful tool that engineers use, but it's not the only tool, and engineering is much more than just applied science.

Here's how science supports engineering:

1. Provides foundational knowledge: Scientific understanding of natural phenomena gives engineers a starting point for their designs.
2. Offers predictive power: Scientific theories allow engineers to make educated guesses about what might work.
3. Guides experimentation: Scientific methods help engineers design and conduct effective tests.
4. Explains results: Scientific principles help engineers understand why certain approaches succeed or fail.

However, engineering goes beyond just applying scientific knowledge. It involves:

1. Creativity: Engineers must come up with novel solutions to problems, often combining ideas in unexpected ways.
2. Practical problem-solving: Unlike scientists who might pursue knowledge for its own sake, engineers are focused on creating workable solutions to real-world problems.
3. Dealing with constraints: Engineers must work within limitations of time, resources, and current technology.
4. Balancing trade-offs: Often, improving one aspect of a design means compromising another. Engineers must find the optimal balance.
5. Considering human factors: Engineers need to think about how people will interact with their creations, considering aspects like usability, safety, and cultural context.

The Creative Leap

While scientific knowledge was crucial to Parsons' success, it was his creative leap - the idea of slowing down steam flow to extract more energy - that led to his breakthrough. Other scientists and engineers had access to the same scientific knowledge, but they didn't make the same innovative connection.

This creative aspect of engineering is why we can't simply reduce it to applied science. It's a unique discipline that combines scientific knowledge with practical problem-solving, creativity, and a deep understanding of real-world constraints and human needs.

Lessons for Problem-Solving

The relationship between science and engineering offers valuable lessons for problem-solving in any field:

1. Build a strong knowledge base: Understanding the fundamental principles related to your problem area can guide your efforts and help you avoid dead ends.
2. Use data to inform decisions: Like Parsons studying steam properties, look for relevant information to guide your approach.
3. Be willing to experiment: Don't be afraid to try new ideas, even if they seem unconventional.
4. Learn from failure: Each unsuccessful attempt can provide valuable information for your next try.
5. Think creatively: Look for unexpected connections or novel applications of existing knowledge.
6. Consider practical constraints: Remember to account for real-world limitations and requirements in your solutions.

By combining a scientific approach with creative thinking and practical considerations, we can tackle complex problems more effectively, whether we're designing new technologies or addressing everyday challenges.

The Myth of the Lone Inventor: Innovation as a Collaborative Effort

The Edison-Maxim Rivalry: A Case Study in Collaborative Innovation

The story of the electric light bulb is often told as a tale of Thomas Edison's lone genius. However, the reality is far more complex and illustrates the collaborative nature of innovation.

In the late 19th century, Thomas Edison and Hiram Maxim were locked in a fierce competition to create a practical electric light bulb. Both men had invested significant time, money, and manpower into the project. Edison had successfully created incandescent bulbs, but they would only shine for a few minutes before burning out. The key challenge was finding a filament that could withstand the heat.

Meanwhile, Maxim had made significant progress in improving filaments. Working with Lewis Latimer, a young African-American inventor, Maxim's team designed a bulb that could last up to 40 hours. This success irked Edison, who felt his rival was stealing his ideas. Maxim, for his part, resented the implication that he had copied Edison's work.

The truth is that neither man was working in isolation. Both were building on knowledge accumulated over generations and relying on teams of skilled workers and fellow inventors. Edison's lab in Menlo Park was famously collaborative, with teams of researchers working on various aspects of the problem. Maxim, too, relied on the expertise of others, including Latimer, whose contributions were crucial to their success.

This story challenges the myth of the lone inventor in several ways:

1. Cumulative knowledge: Both Edison and Maxim were building on existing knowledge about electricity and light.
2. Team effort: Both relied on teams of researchers and technicians to carry out experiments and refine designs.
3. Competitive innovation: The rivalry between Edison and Maxim spurred both to greater achievements.
4. Diverse contributions: The involvement of figures like Lewis Latimer highlights the often-overlooked contributions of minority inventors.

The Microwave Oven: A Wartime Innovation with Unexpected Results

The story of the microwave oven further illustrates the complex, collaborative nature of innovation. Its development spans continents, involves multiple teams of scientists and engineers, and demonstrates how inventions often arise from unexpected sources.

During World War II, British scientists developed a high-frequency short-wave emitter called a magnetron to improve the detection of Nazi fighter planes. This advanced magnetron was portable and had the potential to change the course of the war if mass-produced. However, the British faced two major challenges: they hadn't found a way to mass-produce the magnetrons, and even if they could, they lacked the necessary raw materials due to the Nazi blockade.

To overcome these obstacles, the British smuggled their model across the Atlantic to America. There, Percy Spencer, a scientist and engineer at Raytheon (a radio and vacuum tube production company), found a way to mass-produce the magnetron using cheaper materials. This effort, which began in 1940, not only helped defeat the Nazis but also laid the groundwork for a revolutionary kitchen appliance.

The magnetron, in transmitting short waves of high frequency, generated heat. Some soldiers used the device to warm themselves during the war. After the war, larger versions were adapted for use in restaurants, capable of cooking food in minutes.

The transition from a wartime technology to a household appliance required further innovation. Adapting the microwave for home use meant finding even more affordable materials, which in turn required adjusting the energy source. Spencer and Raytheon made trade-offs, sacrificing some cooking speed in home microwaves to make them more affordable and practical for everyday use.

This story highlights several key aspects of the innovation process:

1. Cross-disciplinary application: A technology developed for warfare found an unexpected use in cooking.
2. International collaboration: The project involved scientists and engineers from multiple countries.
3. Adaptation to constraints: The design evolved based on available materials and manufacturing capabilities.
4. Unintended consequences: The microwave oven was never the original goal of the magnetron project.
5. Continuous refinement: The technology underwent several iterations before becoming suitable for home use.

Lessons from the Myth-Busting

Understanding the collaborative nature of innovation offers valuable insights:

1. Build on existing knowledge: No invention comes out of nowhere. Always start by understanding what's already known or been tried.
2. Collaborate and share ideas: Innovation thrives when people with different skills and perspectives work together.
3. Embrace unexpected outcomes: Sometimes the most valuable applications of a new technology are not the ones originally envisioned.
4. Recognize diverse contributions: Important innovations often come from unexpected sources or overlooked individuals.
5. Understand the broader context: Inventions are shaped by the social, economic, and technological context of their time.

By recognizing innovation as a collaborative, cumulative process, we can approach problem-solving more effectively. Whether we're working on a major technological breakthrough or trying to improve a process at work, we can benefit from seeking out diverse perspectives, building on existing knowledge, and remaining open to unexpected outcomes.

Conclusion: The Art and Science of Making Things

As we've journeyed through "The Things We Make," we've uncovered the fascinating world of engineering and its profound impact on human civilization. From ancient cathedrals to modern microwaves, we've seen how the engineering method has shaped our world and continues to drive innovation.

Let's recap some of the key insights we've gained:

1. The engineering method is a timeless approach to problem-solving that combines practical experience, rules of thumb, and creative thinking to find solutions within given constraints.

2. Engineers must constantly balance competing priorities and make trade-offs to find the best possible solution in any given situation.

3. The concept of "best" in engineering is always contextual, depending on the specific problem, available resources, and needs of the users.

4. Science and engineering have a symbiotic relationship. Science provides crucial knowledge and tools, but engineering goes beyond mere application to involve creativity, practical problem-solving, and consideration of real-world constraints.

5. Innovation is rarely the work of a lone genius. Instead, it's a collaborative, cumulative process that builds on existing knowledge and often involves contributions from diverse and unexpected sources.

These insights reveal engineering as both an art and a science. It requires not only technical knowledge but also creativity, intuition, and a deep understanding of human needs and limitations. Engineers must be able to navigate uncertainty, work within constraints, and find elegant solutions to complex problems.

Moreover, we've seen how the engineering mindset can be applied beyond traditional engineering fields. Whether we're organizing a project, solving a business problem, or even tackling personal challenges, we can benefit from adopting an engineering approach:

1. Start with what you know and build on existing knowledge.
2. Break big problems into smaller, manageable parts.
3. Use rules of thumb and practical experience to guide decision-making.
4. Be prepared to adapt and learn from mistakes.
5. Consider diverse perspectives and collaborate with others.
6. Balance competing priorities and make informed trade-offs.
7. Remain open to unexpected outcomes and applications.

By viewing the world through the lens of the engineering method, we gain a deeper appreciation for the objects and processes around us. What once might have seemed mundane - a soda can, a microwave oven, or a bicycle - becomes a marvel of creative problem-solving and technical ingenuity.

"The Things We Make" challenges us to see beyond the surface of the objects and systems that surround us. It invites us to consider the complex web of decisions, trade-offs, and innovations that go into even the simplest products. This perspective not only enhances our understanding of the world but also empowers us to become better problem-solvers in our own lives.

As we move forward, let's carry with us the lessons learned from centuries of engineering triumphs and setbacks. Let's approach challenges with the curiosity of a master mason studying an arch, the creativity of an inventor reimagining a wartime technology, and the persistence of engineers working to perfect the everyday objects we often take for granted.

In doing so, we honor the legacy of countless unnamed innovators who have shaped our world, and we contribute to the ongoing human endeavor of making things that improve our lives and push the boundaries of what's possible. After all, every time we apply the engineering method to solve a problem, big or small, we're participating in this grand tradition of human ingenuity and progress.

So the next time you pick up a seemingly ordinary object, take a moment to appreciate the engineering marvel it represents. And when you face a challenge, remember that you have at your disposal the same problem-solving approach that has built cathedrals, powered cities, and revolutionized our daily lives. The engineering method isn't just for engineers - it's a powerful tool for anyone seeking to make things better, solve problems more effectively, and contribute to the ongoing story of human innovation.