Introduction
Jared Diamond's "The Third Chimpanzee" is a captivating exploration of human evolution, behavior, and our place in the natural world. This book takes readers on an eye-opening journey through the history of our species, challenging many commonly held beliefs about what makes us uniquely human. By examining our genetic similarities to other primates, the development of language, and the origins of racial characteristics, Diamond paints a complex picture of humanity that is both enlightening and, at times, unsettling.
Our Genetic Kinship with Chimpanzees
One of the most striking revelations in "The Third Chimpanzee" is just how closely related humans are to other primates, particularly chimpanzees. Diamond presents scientific evidence showing that we share an astonishing 98.6% of our DNA with chimpanzees. This means that only 1.4% of our genetic makeup contains the information responsible for what we consider uniquely human traits, such as our capacity for complex language, art, and technology.
This genetic similarity is so pronounced that some taxonomists even argue that humans and chimpanzees should be classified within the same genus, Homo. According to this perspective, there would be three species within the Homo genus: Homo troglodytes (common chimpanzee), Homo paniscus (bonobo), and Homo sapiens (humans).
To put this genetic closeness into perspective, Diamond compares it to other species. For example, willow warblers and chiffchaffs, two European bird species that look almost identical, share 97.7% of their DNA. Yet, these birds are considered less closely related to each other than humans are to chimpanzees.
This revelation challenges our understanding of what it means to be human and highlights the thin genetic line that separates us from our closest animal relatives.
The Evolution of Humans and the Importance of Language
Diamond takes readers on a journey through human evolution, starting from the earliest stages of our ancestral lineage. He explains how, around 3 million years ago, two distinct species of early humans emerged: Australopithecus robustus and Australopithecus africanus. The latter eventually evolved into Homo habilis, which then gave rise to Homo erectus.
Homo erectus marked a significant step in human evolution, with larger brains and bodies. This species began to expand beyond Africa into Asia and Europe. Eventually, around 500,000 years ago, Homo erectus evolved into Homo sapiens – our own species.
While these anatomical changes were crucial in our evolution, Diamond argues that the development of language was the true game-changer for humanity. He explains that the ability to speak requires a specific arrangement of the larynx, tongue, and associated muscles – a structure that chimpanzees, gorillas, and orangutans lack.
Interestingly, even early Homo sapiens didn't possess the physical capability for speech for the first 460,000 years of their existence. It was only when a subtle anatomical change occurred that humans gained the vocal control and range necessary for complex language.
This development of language marked what anthropologists call the "great leap forward" in human evolution. With the ability to communicate complex ideas, instructions, and images, humans could now share knowledge more effectively, leading to rapid advancements in art, technology, and social organization.
The Origins of Human Language
To understand how human language might have developed, Diamond draws parallels with the emergence of pidgin and creole languages during the era of European colonization. When traders from different lands met, they initially struggled to communicate. This led to the creation of simple languages called pidgins, which combined elements from various native languages.
As subsequent generations grew up speaking these pidgins as their native tongue, the languages became more complex and developed into what are known as creoles. Fascinatingly, creoles that developed independently across the globe share common features, such as similar grammar structures and the use of prepositions.
Diamond suggests that human languages may have evolved in a similar manner, starting with simple communication systems that gradually became more complex over time.
He also explores animal communication, noting that some species, like vervet monkeys, have sophisticated systems of vocalizations that respond to different environmental stimuli. This suggests that the foundations for language are not unique to humans, although our capacity for complex, abstract communication certainly is.
The Development of Racial Characteristics
Diamond tackles the sensitive topic of racial characteristics, explaining how features like skin color, hair texture, and eye shape came to differ among human populations. He presents two main scientific theories: natural selection and sexual selection.
Natural selection, the more widely accepted theory among biologists, suggests that racial characteristics emerged to improve a population's chances of survival in specific environments. For example, the large chests of Andean Indians allow them to absorb more oxygen from the thin air at high altitudes.
However, natural selection doesn't fully explain all racial characteristics, such as variations in skin color that don't always correlate with sun exposure. This is where sexual selection comes into play.
Sexual selection, proposed by Charles Darwin, suggests that certain physical traits become more common in a population because they are considered attractive to potential mates. Over generations, characteristics that increase the likelihood of finding a mate within a given region become more prevalent, even if they don't necessarily improve survival rates.
Diamond argues that a combination of these two theories likely led to the gradual development of distinct racial characteristics among human populations. This nuanced explanation helps readers understand the complexity of human diversity without resorting to simplistic or racist interpretations.
The Surprising Truth About Agriculture
One of the most thought-provoking sections of "The Third Chimpanzee" challenges the widely held belief that the adoption of agriculture was an unequivocal boon for humanity. Diamond presents evidence suggesting that hunter-gatherers actually enjoyed a higher quality of life than early farmers.
Studies of modern hunter-gatherer societies, such as the Kalahari bushmen, show that they spend only 12 to 19 hours per week gathering food. This leaves them with plenty of leisure time, contrary to the popular image of constantly struggling for survival.
Moreover, archaeological evidence indicates that hunter-gatherers were generally healthier than farming populations who lived in the same regions at a later date. For example, paleontologists found that the average height of hunter-gatherers in Greece and Turkey at the end of the last Ice Age was 172 cm. After the adoption of agriculture, this average dropped to just 157 cm, suggesting a decline in nutrition.
So why did agriculture replace hunting and gathering if it led to a lower quality of life? Diamond explains that agriculture could support larger populations, even if individual health suffered. As agricultural societies grew in number, they were able to push the healthier but fewer hunter-gatherers to the margins.
This population boom had a significant impact on human progress. With more people came more minds to work on technological and cultural advancements, leading to the rapid development of civilizations. However, this came at the cost of individual health and leisure time.
This revelation challenges our understanding of progress and raises questions about the trade-offs involved in the development of complex societies.
The Dark Side of Human Nature: Genocide
In one of the book's most sobering sections, Diamond confronts the disturbing reality of genocide in human history. He argues that genocide is not an aberration committed only by psychopaths, but a terrifyingly common occurrence throughout human history.
Diamond provides numerous examples of genocide, from the near-extermination of native Tasmanians by British settlers to the more recent horrors of the Rwandan genocide. He points out that in the 20th century alone, there were at least 26 cases of genocide targeting racial, national, ethnic, religious, or political groups.
The prevalence of genocide leads Diamond to conclude that it must be considered a part of human nature. This doesn't mean that all humans will commit genocide, but rather that we all have the potential for such behavior under certain circumstances.
Diamond explores the various justifications that perpetrators use to rationalize their actions. These include claims of self-defense, the advancement of a "correct" religion or political belief, and the dehumanization of victims by comparing them to animals.
This section of the book serves as a stark reminder of the darkness that lurks within human nature. By acknowledging this potential for evil, Diamond suggests that we might be better equipped to prevent such atrocities in the future.
Humanity's Long History of Environmental Exploitation
Another myth that Diamond dispels is the idea that primitive societies lived in perfect harmony with nature. He presents evidence showing that human societies have always posed a threat to the environment, even if the scale of that threat has increased dramatically in modern times.
One example he cites is the extinction of the moa, a large flightless bird, shortly after the Māori people arrived in New Zealand. Initially, scientists rejected the idea that the Māori could have caused this extinction, assuming they had a deep respect for nature. However, archaeological evidence has since proven that the Māori hunted the moa extensively for meat, eggs, and bones.
Diamond also discusses the case of the "Ancient Ones," an advanced indigenous civilization in New Mexico that collapsed due to environmental mismanagement. By cutting down all the trees in their region for timber and firewood, they inadvertently destroyed the natural underground water-storage system on which they depended. This led to drought and the eventual collapse of their civilization.
These examples serve to illustrate that environmental exploitation is not a modern phenomenon but a consistent feature of human societies throughout history. The key difference, Diamond argues, is that our ancestors were often unaware of the long-term consequences of their actions. In contrast, we now have the knowledge to understand the impact of our behavior on the environment, making our current environmental crisis all the more tragic.
Final Thoughts: Understanding Our Past to Shape Our Future
As "The Third Chimpanzee" draws to a close, Diamond leaves readers with a profound sense of both the remarkable achievements and terrible mistakes that have characterized human history. By delving into our genetic makeup, the development of language, the origins of racial characteristics, and our long history of environmental exploitation and violence, he paints a complex picture of what it means to be human.
The book serves as a wake-up call, reminding us that while we have the capacity for great innovation and progress, we also carry within us the potential for destruction – both of ourselves and our environment. In an era where technology has amplified our ability to impact the world around us, understanding our nature and our history becomes more crucial than ever.
Diamond's work challenges us to confront uncomfortable truths about our species. By acknowledging our close kinship with chimpanzees, we're reminded of our place in the natural world. By recognizing the dark chapters of our history, such as genocide and environmental destruction, we're better equipped to prevent their recurrence.
At the same time, the book celebrates the unique qualities that have allowed humans to achieve so much. Our capacity for complex language, art, and technology sets us apart from other species and has enabled us to create rich cultures and advanced civilizations.
"The Third Chimpanzee" ultimately leaves us with a sense of responsibility. As the species with the greatest capacity to impact our planet, we have an obligation to use our knowledge and understanding to make wise choices for the future. By learning from our past – both the triumphs and the tragedies – we can work towards a future that harnesses the best of human nature while guarding against its worst impulses.
In conclusion, Jared Diamond's "The Third Chimpanzee" is a thought-provoking exploration of human nature and history. It challenges readers to reconsider their assumptions about what makes us human and encourages a more nuanced understanding of our place in the world. By providing a comprehensive look at our species – from our genetic makeup to our cultural achievements and our potential for both creation and destruction – Diamond offers valuable insights that can help guide us as we navigate the complex challenges of the modern world.