Under a White Sky Summary

“What if the very tools we use to fix nature’s problems end up creating new ones? Can we ever truly control the natural world?”

1. Human intervention has reshaped the planet.

Humans have left an indelible mark on Earth, so much so that scientists argue we’ve entered a new geological epoch: the Anthropocene. This era is defined by human activity altering the planet’s ecosystems, landscapes, and climate. From controlling rivers to clearing forests, our actions have fundamentally changed the natural world.

For example, Louisiana’s levee system, designed to prevent flooding, has caused the state’s coastline to vanish at an alarming rate. By blocking the Mississippi River’s natural sediment flow, the levees have stopped the creation of new land, leading to rapid erosion. Similarly, the Chicago Sanitary and Ship Canal reversed the flow of the Chicago River to manage waste, but it also connected previously separate ecosystems, allowing invasive species like Asian carp to wreak havoc.

These interventions often solve immediate problems but create long-term challenges. The Mississippi River’s sediment is now manually dredged and relocated to rebuild land, while electric barriers in Chicago’s canal attempt to stop invasive fish. These fixes are temporary and highlight the unintended consequences of trying to control nature.

Examples

• Louisiana’s levees prevent flooding but accelerate land loss.
• The Chicago Sanitary and Ship Canal solved waste issues but introduced invasive species.
• Manual sediment relocation in Louisiana is a stopgap solution to land erosion.

2. Tinkering with ecosystems can lead to chaos.

When humans manipulate ecosystems, the results are often unpredictable and damaging. A prime example is the introduction of Asian carp to the Mississippi River in the 1960s. These fish were brought in to control aquatic weeds but quickly became an invasive species, outcompeting native fish and disrupting ecosystems.

The carp’s insatiable appetite for nutrients has made them a threat to the Great Lakes. To prevent their spread, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers installed electric barriers in the Chicago Sanitary and Ship Canal. However, these barriers are not foolproof, and even one carp breaching them could devastate the Great Lakes’ ecosystem.

Efforts to control the carp population include creative ideas like CarpFest, an event aimed at encouraging people to overfish the species. While this approach has had some success, it underscores the difficulty of undoing ecological damage caused by human intervention.

Examples

• Asian carp were introduced to control weeds but became invasive.
• Electric barriers in Chicago’s canal aim to stop carp but aren’t failsafe.
• CarpFest encourages overfishing to reduce the carp population.

3. Gene-editing offers a way to restore balance.

Gene-editing technology, like CRISPR, is being explored as a tool to address ecological imbalances caused by invasive species. One example is the cane toad, introduced to Australia to control beetle grubs but now a toxic menace to native wildlife. Scientists are experimenting with editing the toads’ genes to make them less harmful.

By disabling the gene that produces a deadly enzyme in the toads’ poison, researchers hope to create detoxified toads. These modified toads could be used to “train” native predators to avoid eating them, reducing the toads’ impact on the ecosystem.

While gene-editing raises ethical questions, proponents argue that it’s a targeted way to fix problems humans have already created. Unlike invasive species, which disrupt entire ecosystems, gene-editing focuses on specific traits to restore balance.

Examples

• Cane toads were introduced to control pests but became toxic invaders.
• CRISPR technology disables the gene for the toads’ deadly enzyme.
• Detoxified toads could teach predators to avoid eating them.

4. Some species now rely on human help to survive.

Human activity has pushed many species to the brink of extinction, leaving them dependent on us for survival. The Devils Hole pupfish, found only in a single cavern in Death Valley, California, is one such species. Its population dwindled due to water pumping that shrank its habitat.

To save the pupfish, biologists have taken extraordinary measures, including building a replica of its habitat and delivering supplemental food. These efforts have helped the population grow from just 38 fish in 2006 to over 200 today.

This phenomenon isn’t unique to the pupfish. Many species now require human intervention to survive, raising questions about our responsibility to protect the life forms we’ve endangered.

Examples

• The Devils Hole pupfish’s habitat was damaged by water pumping.
• Biologists built a replica habitat to support the pupfish.
• Supplemental feeding has helped the pupfish population recover.

5. Selective breeding could help coral reefs adapt.

Coral reefs are dying due to warming oceans and changing chemistry caused by climate change. Marine biologist Ruth Gates proposed selectively breeding “super corals” that can withstand higher temperatures and stress.

This process involves exposing corals to extreme conditions and breeding the survivors. Over time, their offspring may develop traits that make them more resilient. While this approach shows promise, it’s not a standalone solution. Without addressing climate change, even super corals may not survive.

Coral reefs are vital ecosystems that support countless marine species. Saving them is not just about preserving biodiversity but also protecting the livelihoods of millions of people who depend on reefs for food and income.

Examples

• Half of the Caribbean’s coral disappeared in the 1980s due to warming oceans.
• Ruth Gates pioneered the idea of breeding stress-resistant corals.
• Coral reefs support marine life and human communities.

6. Carbon removal is becoming essential.

Reducing carbon emissions may no longer be enough to combat global warming. Scientists are exploring carbon removal methods to extract CO2 from the atmosphere. One innovative approach involves turning CO2 into stone.

At a power plant in Iceland, CO2 is captured, mixed with water, and injected into volcanic rock. The CO2 reacts with the rock and mineralizes, effectively locking it away. This process mimics natural carbon storage but accelerates it from thousands of years to just a few.

While promising, carbon removal is not a substitute for reducing emissions. It’s a complementary strategy that could buy us time to transition to sustainable energy sources.

Examples

• Carbon removal extracts CO2 from the atmosphere.
• Iceland’s power plant turns CO2 into stone using volcanic rock.
• Carbon removal accelerates natural processes to store carbon.

7. Solar geoengineering could cool the planet.

Solar geoengineering involves injecting reflective particles into the atmosphere to block sunlight and lower temperatures. This idea is inspired by volcanic eruptions, like Mount Tambora in 1815, which caused global cooling by releasing particles into the air.

While solar geoengineering could help combat climate change, it comes with risks. The particles would need to be replenished constantly, and any interruption could cause a sudden spike in temperatures. Additionally, the technique could alter weather patterns and even change the color of the sky.

Despite these concerns, some scientists believe solar geoengineering may become necessary if other efforts to reduce emissions fall short.

Examples

• Mount Tambora’s eruption in 1815 caused global cooling.
• Solar geoengineering mimics volcanic effects to lower temperatures.
• Risks include dependency on particles and altered weather patterns.

8. Nature’s resilience has limits.

While ecosystems can recover from some disturbances, human activity has pushed many beyond their breaking point. For example, the Mississippi River’s sediment flow can’t be restored without drastic measures like punching holes in levees.

Similarly, coral reefs and species like the pupfish require ongoing human intervention to survive. These examples show that nature’s ability to heal itself is not infinite, especially when faced with rapid, large-scale changes.

Recognizing these limits is essential for developing sustainable solutions that work with, rather than against, natural processes.

Examples

• Louisiana’s coastline can’t recover without drastic action.
• Coral reefs need human help to adapt to warming oceans.
• The pupfish relies on artificial habitats to survive.

9. The future depends on bold action.

The challenges we face require innovative and sometimes uncomfortable solutions. Gene-editing, carbon removal, and solar geoengineering are just a few examples of the bold actions needed to address environmental crises.

These solutions are not without risks, but the alternative – doing nothing – is far worse. As the author argues, we must embrace these technologies while also addressing the root causes of the problems they aim to solve.

The future of our planet depends on our willingness to take responsibility for the damage we’ve caused and to act decisively to repair it.

Examples

• Gene-editing could restore balance to ecosystems.
• Carbon removal offers a way to reduce atmospheric CO2.
• Solar geoengineering may help cool the planet but requires careful management.

Takeaways

1. Support policies and technologies that reduce carbon emissions and promote carbon removal.
2. Advocate for conservation efforts that protect endangered species and ecosystems.
3. Educate yourself and others about the risks and benefits of emerging environmental solutions.