Underbug Summary

"How can a tiny, eyeless insect reshape the way we think about society, architecture, energy, and robotics?" Lisa Margonelli dives into the fascinating world of termites to explore this question and much more.

1. Termites: From Cockroaches to Community Members

Termites didn’t always live in elaborate colonies; they evolved from solitary scavengers like cockroaches millions of years ago. These early cockroach ancestors were loners, surviving off fruit, fungi, and rotten leaves. However, a unique ability – digesting wood – gave their termite descendants an edge. Wood was an abundant food source, but digesting it required specialized digestive microbes in their guts.

A remarkable survival strategy emerged when these termites faced a challenge: they lost their wood-digesting microbes every time they molted. To tackle this issue, termites developed a unique behavior of exchanging a microbial mixture of feces and wood particles with one another. What began as a necessity led to an evolutionary leap – the rise of their social nature and colony living.

Over time, termites migrated across oceans and new environments by hitching rides in hollow tree trunks, firmly establishing themselves. Today, there are over 3,000 termite species thriving in regions spanning from the equator to almost the North and South Poles.

Examples

• Early cockroach ancestors laid eggs and abandoned them to survive independently.
• Termites evolved their practice of sharing microbes mouth-to-mouth and mouth-to-anus to retain their digestion abilities.
• This evolutionary shift resulted in termite societies that spread across the globe.

2. Seeing Humans in Termites: Historical Misconceptions

For centuries, humans interpreted termite behavior by projecting their own societal structures onto these insects. Early naturalists saw termite colonies as monarchies, assuming a strict hierarchy of "kings," nobility, and workers. This mistaken anthropomorphism continued for years, fueled by male-biased assumptions – even though the "kings" turned out to be egg-laying queens.

In 18th- and 19th-century Europe, termite colonies were compared to human societies to justify social systems like slavery or egalitarianism. Some scientists claimed lighter-colored ants enslaved darker ants, legitimizing racist ideologies. Others, like Russian zoologist Pyotr Kropotkin, admired termites' seemingly collective and cooperative systems, presenting them as an ideal for human communities.

Modern entomologists, like Deborah Gordon, have argued for stepping away from human analogies to better understand termites on their own terms. Yet old habits linger, as even Gordon compared ant colonies to the human brain.

Examples

• Dutch anatomist Jan Swammerdam debunked the idea of male "kings" in termite colonies by confirming they were actually queens.
• Termite behavior was cited in political debates, like Henry Smeathman’s comparison of termite aristocrats to England’s “idle gentry.”
• Scientists in the 20th century likened insect colonies to postwar factories or neurons in the human brain.

3. The Evolutionary Puzzle of Social Life

Eusocial insects like termites challenge Charles Darwin’s principle of survival through reproduction. In a termite colony, reproduction remains the queen’s and king’s domain, while non-fertile workers toil to maintain the colony. Why would these sterile termites sacrifice their ability to reproduce for the sake of the group?

One response is the "superorganism" theory. This idea treats the entire colony as a single organism, where altruistic actions benefit the colony's survival as a whole. Another explanation, proposed by biologist William D. Hamilton, is "inclusive fitness.” This suggests sterile workers help relatives reproduce, as genetic continuity is preserved through related individuals like the queen.

Termite colonies make these theories tangible. Soldiers defend the group, workers build and sustain the nest, and the queen produces offspring that carry shared genes across generations.

Examples

• A termite queen produces up to one egg every three seconds, ensuring the colony's genetic line continues.
• The superorganism theory views non-reproducing termites as comparable to specialized organs in a collective body.
• The inclusive fitness model explains altruism as a means to protect genetically related offspring.

4. Termite Mounds as Living Structures

Termite mounds are marvels of construction and appear almost alive. Built from mud and termite saliva, these structures self-regulate their internal conditions, such as oxygen levels and temperature. Termites achieve this without any centralized planning.

Scientists discovered mound-building behaviors might be guided by pheromones, chemicals released when termites drop bits of mud. Over time, collective actions like this create intricate tunnels and chambers. Research even shows that termite mounds are not mere shelters but function as "lungs." Air flows into the mound, carrying oxygen downward while expelling carbon dioxide, all essential for sustaining the colony.

These structures reveal termite colonies as interconnected systems, not merely organized groups of individuals. The mound itself acts like a body, responding to environmental changes just as an organism would.

Examples

• In Namibia, termite mounds stand over 30 feet tall and function as ventilation systems.
• J. Scott Turner’s experiments revealed air flow patterns in mounds that mimic respiration.
• South African naturalist Eugène Marais compared mounds to bodies with organs like skin, lungs, and an immune system.

5. Termites as Fungus Farmers

Some termites take their cleverness even further, farming fungus to aid digestion. Macrotermes species in Africa grow Termitomyces, a fungus that breaks down complex plant material into simpler sugars the termites can consume. This "collective stomach" system highlights the impressive partnership between termites and fungi.

Termites feed grasses and wood to the fungus at the top of comb-like structures underneath their mounds. The fungus thrives and ensures both species survive. Instead of viewing termites as cultivators, researchers speculate the fungus might chemically direct termites' building activities.

This fascinating collaboration makes termites some of the ecosystem’s most effective decomposers, consuming as much grass annually as cows.

Examples

• Termitomyces fungi rely entirely on termites to survive and flourish.
• A single termite mound in Namibia processes more plant matter than grazing livestock.
• Scientists theorize the fungal spores might release chemical signals to shape mound-building behavior.

6. Biofuels and the Potential of Termite Guts

Scientists have turned to termites' guts to explore sustainable energy solutions. Packed with microbes that break down wood and plant cellulose, termite digestive systems hold clues for creating biofuels like "grassoline." These microbes are unparalleled – 99% of them are unique to termites.

Though technology like metagenomics has mapped some gut microbial genes, reproducing their efficiency outside termite guts proves challenging. Efforts to develop viable and affordable biofuels, such as the U.S. Joint Bioenergy Institute's work, have yet to rival conventional gasoline in cost and production ease.

Termites may represent a model for future energy innovation – if researchers can decode their microbial symbiosis.

Examples

• Metagenomic studies identified over 1,000 wood-digesting genes in termites.
• Biofuel projects based on termite digestion have brought costs down, but $30 per gallon remains uncompetitive.
• Termite communities show how nature efficiently converts plant biomass into energy.

7. Swarm Intelligence and Robotic Possibilities

Termites are mindless alone, but as a group, they exhibit remarkable problem-solving skills. Their collective intelligence stems from stigmergy – a system where individuals act based on signals left in the environment, such as pheromone trails.

This principle inspired robotics researchers, who developed TERMES robots capable of replicating termite-like behaviors. Instead of requiring centralized control, these robots react to environmental cues to build elaborate structures together.

Future robots could adopt swarm-based methods, just like termites, to tackle complex challenges.

Examples

• Stigmergy explains why termites build, destroy, or move structures based on environmental signals.
• Harvard’s TERMES robots use sensors and algorithms to mimic termite group behavior.
• Roboticists envision swarms of simple bots outperforming individual, high-intelligence machines.

8. Termites’ Global Presence

Termites adapted to nearly every climate, from African deserts to American forests. They owe this success to their wood-digesting microbes and social organizations, which allowed them to establish colonies worldwide.

Their remarkable adaptability stands as an evolutionary triumph, proving how a small insect can impact local ecosystems and human-made environments.

Examples

• Termites migrated globally in hollow trees, surviving extreme conditions.
• They flourish in arid Australian deserts and tropical rainforests.
• In the U.S. alone, termites cause $5 billion in annual damages.

9. Breaking Down Prejudice Against Bugs

Lisa Margonelli’s decade-long exploration encourages a fresh perspective on creatures often dismissed as pests. Humanity’s ability to learn from termites starts with overcoming fear and contempt for them, unlocking lessons in sustainability and technology.

By shifting attitudes, we can appreciate termites' contributions to ecology and even harness their talent for human benefit.

Examples

• Scientists extract termite-derived ideas for ecological design.
• Termite research prompted biofuel innovations and chemical engineering advances.
• Reassessing termites highlights their role as eco-friendly recyclers.

Takeaways

1. Challenge your own assumptions: Avoid projecting human behavior onto animals, especially in scientific studies.
2. Explore practicality in nature: Nature-based models, like termite-inspired architecture, can offer sustainable solutions.
3. Stay curious about ecosystems: Look beyond pests and consider how even the smallest creatures impact the environment and technology.