War

Is war an inescapable part of human nature, or have we shaped it through society, culture, and ambition?

1. War and Human Nature: Ancient Roots

Humans have been warring since prehistoric times, as evidenced by historical finds like the mummified corpse of Ötzi, who lived around 3300 BC. Researchers discovered that Ötzi died in combat, with wounds and an arrowhead lodged in his body. This suggests that organized violence has long been part of human existence.

Scientists have examined whether war is hardwired in our genes by studying our primate relatives, chimpanzees and bonobos. Chimps often exhibit aggressive and territorial behaviors, engaging in deadly group conflicts. Bonobos, however, are far more peaceful, resolving disputes through bonding and mutual care. This split in behavior shows that human choices also influence the degree of aggression and cooperation in societies.

While evolutionary instincts like the need for resources can incite aggression, humans developed the capacity to reflect on abstract concepts like honor and morality. This means while some aspects of war are primal, others are shaped by cultural ideals or strategic calculations.

Examples

• Ötzi, the Iceman, provides archaeological evidence of early human conflict.
• Chimpanzees exhibit lethal inter-group combat, resembling some human warfare behaviors.
• Bonobos’ nurturing methods illustrate the potential for peace even among primates.

2. The Motivations for War

People and societies go to war for a wide array of reasons – ranging from greed to self-defense, and from emotion to abstract ideas. Greed is a recurrent driver, as seen in the Mongols’ wars of plunder. Similarly, Saddam Hussein’s invasion of Kuwait was motivated by a desire to control its wealth in oil.

Self-defense is another major factor. Historical examples include Israel striking in 1967 against Syria, Egypt, and Jordan to preempt a looming attack. This shows that real or perceived threats can justify aggressive actions, even when peace might still be an option.

Other wars are driven by intangible factors like honor and ideology. Leaders like Napoleon and Alexander the Great pursued personal glory above all else. In many cases, nationalism, religion, or political fervor has inspired masses to support wars, embracing violence in the name of identity, belief, or nationhood.

Examples

• Britain’s war against Spain in 1739, triggered by Captain Jenkins’ ear, masked underlying greed for control of trade routes.
• Israel’s Six-Day War demonstrated self-defense against a coalition of nations.
• Napoleon’s campaigns centered on his personal ambition as much as France’s interests.

3. Culture Shapes Warfare

Cultures shape the way societies perceive and conduct war by fostering values, practices, and beliefs around combat. In medieval Europe, the code of chivalry painted warriors as heroic figures, glamorizing conflict as an honorable pursuit to win glory or marriage.

In early Rome, war became a central civic duty. Male citizens were expected to serve in the army to secure political positions later. The culture of military triumphs, where victorious generals paraded spoils, reinforced war's association with honor and societal pride.

Even tactics and technologies often reflect cultural norms. For instance, Sunzi’s teachings in sixth-century China emphasized strategy over bloodshed, encouraging diplomacy and defense. Contrasting this, Rome exploited its technological ingenuity to adapt peaceful tools like levers into weapons and machinery for war.

Examples

• Chivalric tales like King Arthur's mythology fueled medieval Europe’s romanticized view of conflict.
• Ancient Roman society integrated military service into political progression.
• Sunzi’s Art of War emphasized clever, non-lethal strategies over brute force.

4. Nationalism and Modern Destruction

The Battle of Valmy in 1792 heralded the rise of nationalism, where common people, not just professional soldiers, were motivated to fight with intense passion for their country’s cause. This reshaped wars, turning them from isolated campaigns into massive, unified movements.

Nationalism gave wars unprecedented scale by making conflict a collective duty. The Industrial Revolution also played a role, producing technological advancements like improved weapons while empowering the middle and working classes politically and militarily.

With these factors, modern wars became total wars, engulfing entire nations and civillian economies in prolonged conflict. The ability to wage war on a national scale has made modern combat more destructive than ever before, leading to horrors like trench warfare and nuclear weapons.

Examples

• French citizens at Valmy exemplified the early power of nationalist beliefs in warfare.
• Industrialization allowed mass production of armaments, fueling prolonged conflicts.
• World War I involved millions due to nationalism and industrial capabilities.

5. Why People Fight

The decision to go to war isn’t always voluntary. Soldiers can be coerced through threats, like battlefield executions used by Trotsky’s Red Army. Others are economically motivated, as seen in the U.S. military’s recruitment from poorer areas.

Cultural rituals often reinforce war’s allure or necessity. Historical Roman legions heavily emphasized discipline and unity, fostering loyalty through rituals and symbols. Some societies value warrior traits as a rite of passage for manhood, compelling young men to prove themselves through combat.

Understanding the reasons behind enlistment reveals that war is influenced by both external pressures and internalized values, which together make armed conflict acceptable or even desirable.

Examples

• Eighteenth-century European criminals were given the choice to serve or face execution.
• Modern recruitment tactics often target impoverished communities with limited opportunities.
• The Red Army executed fleeing soldiers to maintain discipline during battles.

6. Civilians and Their Double-Edged Role

Civilians are central figures in war – sometimes as beneficiaries and often as victims. Even during brutal conflicts, war economies have provided opportunities for civilians, such as women entering industries during World War I to replace conscripted men.

At its worst, war subjects civilians to unimaginable horrors, such as widespread rape and displacement. The Soviet Army’s mass violence during World War II targeted local populations, with millions enduring abuse. At the same time, civilian sacrifices, such as contributing to war production, remain indispensable.

Modern armies often target civilians to weaken their opponents, as seen with Sherman’s strategy during the American Civil War. Civilians are not passive bystanders but play active roles, willingly or unwillingly, in shaping the course of wars.

Examples

• Women entered the workforce in large numbers during World War I, gaining economic independence.
• The rampage of Soviet forces in WWII caused immense suffering to German civilians.
• General Sherman deliberately targeted civilians to undermine Confederate support.

7. Rules of Engagement in War

Humanity has often tried to regulate wars through codes and agreements. The 1907 Hague Conference laid out rules for fair conduct, while earlier attempts include religious justifications like the 1122 BC Shang invasion, claiming divine approval for aggression.

However, enforcing rules in the heat of war is fraught with contradictions. Even universally condemned weapons like chemical agents do not prevent the acceptance of other brutal technologies like firebombs or flamethrowers.

Despite rules, real war often defies regulation, as countries prioritize victory over ethics, using tactics and weapons deemed immoral in agreements or customs.

Examples

• The Hague Conference established early international rules of warfare.
• The Declaration of Paris of 1856 aimed to limit naval blockades.
• The duke of Chou’s invasion of Shang justified war through a moral mandate.

8. War’s Many Faces in Art and Memory

Artists, writers, and filmmakers each depict war through different lenses, ranging from its beauty to its chaos. While Apocalypse Now captures the adrenaline and allure of war, Goya’s paintings show its devastation.

Soldiers’ experiences also vary widely. Some remember only fear, like the Soviet woman fighter whose first battle overwhelmed her senses. Others recall exhilaration, as described by a Canadian general driven by the thrill of life-or-death moments.

The way we remember wars is often shaped by subsequent events. For instance, World War II is glorified as good versus evil, while World War I is recalled as futile, despite contemporary soldiers believing in their cause.

Examples

• Apocalypse Now uses striking imagery to illustrate warfare’s emotional impact.
• Francisco Goya’s art emphasizes war’s human suffering and destruction.
• World War I perceptions shifted post-WWII, casting earlier efforts in a different light.

9. Reflection, Education, and Action Against War

Examining the causes of war helps us learn from its lessons. Understanding how culture, technology, and human behavior intertwine with violence enables societies to question when conflicts are necessary and when peace can be maintained.

By studying history, we can identify patterns, such as the interplay of nationalism and economic shifts, which escalate conflicts. Recognizing these triggers makes it easier to promote negotiation over confrontation.

Preventing future wars requires persistent effort to understand not only why wars occur, but also how they might be avoided.

Examples

• Technological advances have often magnified war’s scale, like the machine-gun conflicts of WWI.
• Cultural memory, like chivalry’s legacy, reshapes how current societies view war.
• Recognizing fake justifications for conflicts, such as Saddam Hussein’s invasion of Kuwait.

Takeaways

1. Educate yourself about the cultural, political, and economic factors that drive wars to recognize opportunities for peace.
2. Promote and support the enforcement of international laws or agreements that aim to regulate or prevent conflicts.
3. Acknowledge varied perspectives of war, including those of soldiers and civilians, ensuring a balanced understanding of its consequences.