A People Betrayed Summary

How did a nation plunge into genocide while the world's most powerful organizations and countries stood idly by?

1. Colonial Rule Cemented Hutu and Tutsi Divisions

Colonial authorities in Rwanda shaped a false narrative about the ethnic identities of the Hutu and Tutsi, laying the groundwork for future violence. During the 19th century, German and then Belgian colonists believed Tutsis were a "superior race" descended from outsiders. This narrative fueled deep divisions as colonizers granted privileges, like education and government roles, exclusively to Tutsis.

In 1933, the Belgians conducted a census and mandated ethnic classification on identity cards. By codifying these identities, they institutionalized the divide between Hutu and Tutsi. Over time, these policies disenfranchised the Hutu majority and bred resentment. This division influenced post-independence politics, as Hutu nationalists rose to power, adopting the colonists' idea of Tutsis as "foreign oppressors."

The poisonous legacy of colonial favoritism became a root cause of ethnic conflict. The Rwandan state inherited these false distinctions, enabling leaders to manipulate them for political gain. The seeds sown by outsiders would lead to deadly harvests in future decades.

Examples

• Belgians restricted Hutu access to education and administrative jobs.
• The 1933 census enforced racial identity through physical measurements.
• The Hutu manifesto of 1957 propagated this narrative, calling for Tutsi expulsion.

2. The Death of a King Ended Monarchy and Increased Tensions

The suspicious death of King Rudahigwa in 1959 created chaos and marked the end of the monarchy in Rwanda. Declared a murder by Tutsi elites, his death ignited violence across the country, further deepening communal divides. It paved the way for Hutu nationalists to take political control.

Rwanda’s declaration of independence in 1961 introduced sweeping changes to the country’s political structure. Under the guise of democratic governance, Hutu-majority governments marginalized Tutsi citizens. Thousands of Tutsi were purged from power, denied education, and driven into exile.

This era also saw the first targeted massacres of Tutsis. Mobs and official militias, incited by nationalist rhetoric, began a campaign of killings in the 1960s. These attacks forced waves of Tutsi refugees into neighboring countries, where they began organizing for future battles.

Examples

• Tutsi elites blamed Belgian doctors for the king's death, sparking riots.
• The 1963 Tutsi massacres, described as the worst since the Holocaust.
• One million Tutsis fled Rwanda in the decades following independence.

3. A Growing Hutu Nationalism Fostered Militarism

The ethnic cleavages solidified by colonial rule and post-independence policies evolved into a militarized Hutu nationalism. Leaders like General Juvénal Habyarimana integrated this ideology into governance, creating a police state.

Rwanda's everyday life became militarized. Curfews, checkpoints, and ID checks normalized ethnic segregation. With backing from France, Habyarimana’s regime equipped and trained militias who began quietly preparing for large-scale violence under the guise of "security."

As the government tightened its grip, opposition movements like the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) formed, composed largely of Tutsi refugees. They advocated for their right to return and took up arms, escalating the simmering conflict into full-blown civil war in 1990.

Examples

• France supplied weapons and military training to Rwanda’s security apparatus.
• “Interahamwe” paramilitary units carried out small-scale ethnic killings as early as 1992.
• Rwandan police compiled detailed lists of Tutsi citizens for targeting.

4. Civil War Provided Cover for Genocidal Preparations

Following the RPF’s 1990 invasion, the Rwandan government exploited the chaos of war to prepare for a coordinated genocide. French and Egyptian arms deals funneled vast weaponry to Hutu militias, including guns and machetes disguised as agricultural purchases.

Propaganda became a key tool in inciting ordinary citizens to violence. Radio stations like RTLM broadcast hateful rhetoric, labeling Tutsi as "cockroaches" and urging their extermination. Cheap radios were distributed nationwide, ensuring every household had access to this messaging.

Official massacres began as early as 1992, but without international condemnation or intervention, the killers felt emboldened. Leaders viewed these killings as practice runs, demonstrating the ease with which neighbor could turn against neighbor.

Examples

• Habyarimana’s government spent 71% of its budget on arms during the early 1990s war.
• RTLM radio broadcast Tutsi individuals’ names and addresses, marking them for death.
• The Bugesera massacre in 1992, where 3,000 were killed, served as a “dress rehearsal.”

5. The World Ignored Warnings That Genocide Was Coming

Despite obvious signs of looming violence, the international community failed to act on warnings. UN peacekeeping efforts after the 1993 Arusha Accords were underfunded, understaffed, and politically constrained. UNAMIR commander Roméo Dallaire repeatedly reported worsening conditions, but his pleas fell on deaf ears.

Dallaire also discovered stockpiles of weapons and had credible intelligence that mass violence against Tutsis was imminent. When he requested permission to seize these arms, the UN rejected it, adhering slavishly to the peacekeeping mandate.

As late as March 1994, nations like the US and Belgium dismissed the genocide warnings. Bound by political hesitancy and haunted by previous peacekeeping failures like Somalia, they did not view Rwanda – a small, poor nation – as worth expending their resources.

Examples

• Dallaire reported 85 tons of weapons being distributed across Rwanda in early 1994.
• UN leaders refused Dallaire’s request to preemptively seize illegal arms stockpiles.
• Western countries prioritized evacuating their citizens from Rwanda after April 6, 1994.

6. President Habyarimana’s Death Triggered Genocide

When President Habyarimana’s plane was shot down on April 6, 1994, it unleashed the violence that had been meticulously planned. Hutu Power leaders used the incident as their excuse to begin the slaughter of Tutsi and moderate Hutu.

Within hours, death squads began operating with horrifying efficiency. Ordinary citizens, armed with machetes and encouraged by propaganda, joined militias in killing their neighbors. Nationalists exploited decades of fear and division, fanning hatred into a frenzied genocide.

In just four days, nearly 800,000 Tutsi had been murdered. International forces like UN peacekeepers were powerless, having been issued neither resources nor autonomy to intervene.

Examples

• Radio stations falsely blamed the RPF and Belgian peacekeepers for the president’s assassination.
• UN peacekeepers were prohibited from engaging, even as witnesses to mass killings.
• Belgian soldiers were tortured and killed for symbolic revenge.

7. The UN’s Withdrawal Prolonged the Bloodshed

By April 21, the UN had not responded to the genocide – even after two weeks of relentless killing. Instead of sending reinforcements, the UN Security Council decided to withdraw nearly all its peacekeepers, leaving Rwanda to fend for itself.

Regional Hutu leaders and militias expanded the massacres, emboldened by the international silence. Many believed the UN’s withdrawal signaled tacit approval. Genocide spread beyond Kigali into the countryside, slaughtering victims wherever they sought refuge.

Though individual organizations like the Red Cross showed remarkable courage, international institutions showed moral cowardice. Only when refugee crises reached unimaginable scales – visible to international media – did outside governments begin debating intervention.

Examples

• The ICRC prioritized saving wounded survivors while risking its workers' lives.
• The US and UK delayed classifying the events as "genocide" to avoid legal responsibility.
• One million people fled Rwanda into Zaire during a two-day period.

8. France Intervened – But Protected the Wrong Side

French military efforts under Opération Turquoise, launched in June 1994, purported to save lives but were widely criticized as self-serving. The mission created "safe zones" in southern Rwanda, where perpetrators of violence found refuge and re-armed for future skirmishes.

French leadership hoped to maintain influence over Rwanda, repeating their 20-year pattern of supporting the Hutu-dominated government. Their history of arming and training Rwandan forces made them complicit in the genocide to many observers.

This intervention also acted as an obstacle to the RPF. Kagame’s forces, pragmatic and unstoppable, viewed France’s actions as another betrayal by the global community.

Examples

• RTLM radio welcomed French soldiers as heroes, claiming France was saving Hutus.
• French troops found caches of weapons but failed to disarm génocidaires.
• Documents revealed France continued transferring funds to Rwandan officials during the genocide.

9. The International Community Shares Responsibility

While the génocidaires orchestrated the killings, the international community’s inaction made them complicit. The UN’s failure to intervene, despite clear evidence and capabilities, remains one of its greatest failures.

Meanwhile, France, Belgium, and the US prioritized their own political interests over human lives. Even after the genocide's scale was undeniable, they delayed action or engaged half-heartedly. Their calculated decisions cost a million lives.

Beyond silence, Western powers had actively fueled the Rwandan regime with arms and funds. The story of the Rwandan genocide is not just one of localized hatred; it is a tragedy enabled by global neglect and selfishness.

Examples

• The UN’s International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda convicted only 36 perpetrators by 2009.
• US leaders declined peacekeeping intervention, citing financial burdens.
• France supported Rwanda's tax haven transfers as late as June 1994.

Takeaways

1. Trust early warnings from those on the ground and act decisively to prevent genocide.
2. Avoid enabling oppressive regimes by monitoring international arms sales and illicit fund transfers.
3. Build robust global systems for rapid intervention to stop atrocities before they escalate.