Introduction
In "The Sum of Us," Heather McGhee explores the hidden costs of racism in America and how it affects everyone, not just people of color. The book delves into the ways that racial prejudice and discrimination have shaped public policy, eroded social services, and undermined economic prosperity for all Americans. McGhee argues that by confronting and dismantling white supremacy, we can create a more equitable and prosperous society for everyone.
The author takes readers on a journey through American history and contemporary society, examining how racism has influenced everything from public swimming pools to union organizing, climate change policy to housing segregation. Through compelling stories and rigorous research, McGhee makes a powerful case for why addressing racial inequality is not just a moral imperative but also an economic necessity.
The Zero-Sum Paradigm
One of the central concepts in "The Sum of Us" is the zero-sum paradigm, which McGhee argues has been deeply ingrained in the American psyche, particularly among white Americans. This mindset suggests that any gains made by people of color must come at the expense of white people. It's a belief that has been carefully cultivated and exploited by politicians and elites to maintain power and prevent cross-racial solidarity.
McGhee traces the origins of this zero-sum thinking back to the founding of the United States. European colonists, seeking to justify their enslavement of African people and theft of indigenous lands, created a racial hierarchy with white people at the top. This hierarchy allowed them to rationalize their actions and build their fortunes on the backs of others. The zero-sum paradigm became a self-fulfilling prophecy, as white people literally did profit from Black loss through slavery and discriminatory policies.
Today, this mindset persists, even though it no longer reflects reality. White Americans, on average, still have significantly more wealth and better access to opportunities than Black Americans. Yet many white people feel threatened by the prospect of racial equality, fearing that they will lose their privileged position in society.
This fear has been skillfully exploited by conservative politicians, who frame policies that would benefit all Americans as handouts to undeserving minorities. For example, they might portray efforts to raise the minimum wage as primarily benefiting lazy Black workers, or characterize environmental protection measures as an attack on white coal miners. By stoking racial resentment, these politicians convince many white voters to support policies that actually harm their own economic interests.
McGhee cites research by psychologists Maureen Craig and Jennifer Richeson, who found that white people who were presented with information about changing demographics (showing that racial minorities would become the majority by 2042) were more likely to adopt conservative views on issues like raising the minimum wage or banning fossil fuels. This demonstrates how deeply ingrained the zero-sum mindset is and how it can shape political beliefs.
The author argues that this zero-sum thinking is not only morally wrong but also economically destructive. By pitting different racial groups against each other, it prevents the kind of broad-based coalition building that could lead to policies benefiting all Americans. It's a lose-lose situation where everyone ends up worse off.
The Draining of Public Goods
One of the most striking examples McGhee provides of how racism harms everyone is the story of public swimming pools in the United States. In the mid-20th century, many American cities boasted beautiful, resort-like public pools that were sources of community pride. However, these pools were typically segregated, with Black people either excluded entirely or relegated to smaller, inferior facilities.
When the civil rights movement began challenging segregation in public spaces, including pools, many white communities chose to close their pools rather than integrate them. Some filled their pools with dirt, others leased them to private clubs with whites-only membership policies, and many simply let them fall into disrepair. The result was that both Black and white communities lost access to these valuable public resources.
This pattern of "draining the pool" extended far beyond swimming facilities. McGhee argues that it became a metaphor for how racism has eroded public goods and services across American society. When public services became truly public – that is, when they had to serve all members of society regardless of race – many white Americans withdrew their support for these services altogether.
The author traces this phenomenon back to the New Deal era of the 1930s and 40s. During this time, the federal government implemented a wide range of social programs and public investments that helped create a thriving white middle class. These included subsidized mortgages, job security measures, and social welfare programs. However, Black Americans were largely excluded from these benefits, either through explicit legal clauses or through discriminatory practices like redlining in the housing market.
As long as these public goods primarily benefited white Americans, they enjoyed broad support. But when the civil rights movement of the 1960s began pushing for equal access to these benefits, white support for an activist government plummeted. Many white Americans, accustomed to their economic privilege, began to see it as the natural result of their own hard work rather than the product of generous government policies. The prospect of Black Americans accessing the same opportunities threatened to upend the racial hierarchy they had come to see as normal.
Rather than allow for a more equitable distribution of public goods, many white Americans chose to support politicians who promised to slash government spending and privatize public services. This led to a gradual erosion of the social safety net and public infrastructure that had once benefited all Americans.
The consequences of this "draining the pool" mentality are still felt today. America's public schools, parks, libraries, and other shared resources have suffered from decades of underinvestment. This has hurt not just communities of color but also working-class and middle-class white communities. By choosing to protect their racial privilege, many white Americans inadvertently undermined the very public goods and services that had helped create widespread prosperity in the first place.
Attacks on Democracy
McGhee argues that racism has not only eroded public goods but has also undermined the very foundations of American democracy. The author points out that from the country's inception, the democratic ideal of equal representation has been at odds with the reality of racial hierarchy and exclusion.
In the early days of the United States, only white male landowners were allowed to vote. Even after the passage of the 15th Amendment, which theoretically granted voting rights to Black men, Southern states found creative ways to suppress Black voters. Poll taxes, literacy tests, and "good character" assessments were all used to disenfranchise Black citizens. These measures not only excluded most Black voters but also disenfranchised many poor white voters who couldn't afford poll taxes or pass literacy tests.
The result was a severe weakening of democracy in these states. By 1944, voter participation in poll tax states was only 18 percent, compared to a national average of 69 percent. This suppression of the vote allowed a small elite to maintain power and implement policies that often went against the interests of the majority.
McGhee argues that these voter suppression tactics are not just a relic of the past but continue in different forms today. Modern voter ID laws, for example, often disproportionately affect Black voters. In Texas, gun permits are accepted as valid ID for voting while student IDs are not – a policy that clearly favors white voters, who are much more likely to own guns.
Other tactics include systematically deregistering voters who haven't voted in recent elections, relocating polling places away from college campuses, and eliminating programs that automatically register high school students to vote. While these measures are often justified as efforts to prevent voter fraud (which is extremely rare), their real effect is to make it harder for certain groups – particularly young people and people of color – to exercise their right to vote.
The author points out that these attacks on voting rights don't just harm the specific groups they target. By undermining the principle of one person, one vote, they weaken the democratic process for everyone. When large segments of the population are effectively disenfranchised, it becomes easier for politicians to ignore their needs and interests. This leads to policies that benefit a narrow elite at the expense of the broader public.
Moreover, the rhetoric used to justify these voter suppression efforts often relies on stoking racial fears and resentments. This further divides the electorate and makes it harder to build the kind of broad-based coalitions needed to address shared challenges.
McGhee argues that defending and expanding voting rights is crucial not just for racial justice but for the health of American democracy as a whole. When more people have a voice in the political process, it becomes more likely that policies will reflect the needs and desires of the majority rather than a privileged few.
Unions and Worker Solidarity
The author devotes significant attention to the role of labor unions in American society and how racial divisions have undermined worker solidarity. McGhee argues that unions have historically been one of the most effective tools for improving working conditions and wages for all workers, regardless of race. However, racial resentment has often been used to weaken union power, to the detriment of both white and non-white workers.
McGhee illustrates this point with the story of a union vote at a Nissan plant in Canton, Mississippi in 2017. Despite the potential benefits of unionization – including better healthcare, retirement benefits, higher wages, and safer working conditions – white workers voted against forming a union by a significant margin. The author argues that this decision was influenced by racial fears and the zero-sum thinking that gains for Black workers must come at the expense of white workers.
This wasn't always the case. In the mid-20th century, multiracial union organizing achieved significant gains for all workers, including the 40-hour workweek and retirement benefits. At the peak of union power in the 1950s, one in three American workers belonged to a union. However, union membership began to decline in the 1960s, coinciding with the civil rights movement and the endorsement of racial equality by some powerful unions.
Politicians and corporate lobbyists seized on this moment to sow racial discord within unions. They portrayed unions as protecting "lazy" Black workers at the expense of hardworking white workers. This rhetoric, combined with other factors like globalization and automation, contributed to a steep decline in union membership. Today, only one in sixteen American workers belongs to a union.
The weakening of unions has had profound effects on income inequality and working conditions for all Americans. Without strong unions to advocate for workers' rights, corporations have been able to suppress wages, reduce benefits, and prioritize short-term profits over long-term worker well-being. This has contributed to the stagnation of middle-class incomes and the growing wealth gap between the richest Americans and everyone else.
However, McGhee also points to more recent examples of successful cross-racial worker organizing as a source of hope. She highlights the "Fight for 15" movement, which began with fast food workers in New York City advocating for a $15 minimum wage. This movement put racial unity at the center of its campaigns and has been remarkably successful, leading to minimum wage increases in cities across the country.
The author argues that these successes demonstrate the power of multiracial coalitions and the potential for worker solidarity to overcome racial divisions. When workers of all races recognize their shared interests and work together, they can achieve significant gains that benefit everyone.
McGhee contends that rebuilding strong, diverse unions is crucial for addressing income inequality and improving working conditions for all Americans. However, this requires actively combating the racial resentment and zero-sum thinking that have been used to divide workers in the past. By emphasizing shared interests and the benefits of collective action, workers can build the kind of solidarity needed to effectively advocate for their rights in the face of corporate power.
Climate Change and Racial Justice
In a particularly insightful section of the book, McGhee explores the unexpected connection between racism and climate change denial. She argues that you can't effectively fight climate change without also addressing racial inequality and resentment.
The author points out that race is a key indicator of attitudes towards climate change. Polls have shown that less than 25 percent of white Americans express concern about climate change, compared to 70 percent of Black Americans. Moreover, white people who express racial resentment are much more likely to be climate change deniers.
McGhee traces this connection back to the Obama presidency, when opposition to climate change measures among white Americans increased significantly. Conservative politicians framed Obama's environmental policies as an attack on white jobs, particularly in industries like coal mining. Once again, the zero-sum paradigm was invoked: environmental protection was portrayed as coming at the cost of economic prosperity for white workers.
The author also highlights how the impacts of climate change and environmental degradation are often racialized. Polluting industries like landfills and incinerators are disproportionately located in Black neighborhoods, creating "sacrifice zones" where the health consequences of pollution are concentrated. This spatial segregation of environmental harm has allowed many white Americans to feel insulated from the worst effects of pollution and climate change.
However, McGhee argues that this is a dangerous illusion. Climate change is a global phenomenon that will ultimately affect everyone, regardless of race or economic status. Toxins that pollute the air and water in Black neighborhoods don't stay contained – they spread and impact broader ecosystems. Hurricanes and wildfires fueled by climate change don't discriminate between wealthy and poor communities.
The author contends that the only way to effectively combat climate change is through multiracial organizing and coalition-building. She points to initiatives like the Green New Deal as examples of powerful coalitions that bring together environmental activists, labor unions, and racial justice advocates. These movements recognize the interconnected nature of environmental, economic, and racial justice issues and seek comprehensive solutions that address all of these concerns simultaneously.
McGhee also highlights the Standing Rock protests against the Dakota Access Pipeline as an example of effective multiracial organizing around environmental issues. Led by Native American activists but supported by a broad coalition of allies, these protests drew national attention to both environmental concerns and the rights of indigenous peoples.
The author argues that these movements are powerful precisely because they recognize and directly confront the role of racial resentment in climate change denial. By building diverse coalitions and emphasizing shared interests in a clean, sustainable environment, they can overcome the divisive rhetoric that has long been used to pit working-class white people against environmental protections.
McGhee's analysis suggests that addressing climate change requires more than just scientific arguments or technological solutions. It also requires confronting and dismantling the racial attitudes that have been used to justify environmental destruction and resist climate action. By linking environmental protection to economic justice and racial equity, advocates can build broader support for the kind of transformative policies needed to address the climate crisis.
The Costs of Segregation
McGhee dedicates a significant portion of the book to exploring how racial segregation, particularly in housing, has negative consequences for all Americans, not just people of color. While it's well understood that segregation harms communities of color by concentrating poverty and limiting access to resources, the author argues that it also has hidden costs for white communities.
The author traces the history of housing segregation in the United States, from the Homestead Act of 1862 (which offered free land stolen from Indigenous peoples to white settlers) through the Jim Crow era and into the present day. She explains how policies like redlining, discriminatory lending practices, and exclusionary zoning laws have created and maintained racially segregated neighborhoods.
While these policies were designed to benefit white Americans, McGhee argues that they have ultimately harmed everyone. For example, exclusionary zoning laws that ban the construction of apartment buildings or mandate large lot sizes don't just keep out people of color – they also drive up housing costs for all but the wealthiest white families. This has contributed to a nationwide affordable housing crisis that affects people of all races.
Segregation also has profound effects on education. Because public schools are largely funded by local property taxes, segregated neighborhoods lead to segregated and unequally resourced schools. While this system clearly disadvantages students of color, McGhee argues that it also harms white students in less obvious ways.
Studies have shown that white students in integrated schools develop better critical thinking and problem-solving skills. They also gain cultural competency – the ability to work effectively with people from different backgrounds – which is increasingly valuable in a multicultural society and global economy. However, in highly segregated communities, white students miss out on these benefits. The author notes that 75 percent of white Americans report having social circles that are entirely white, limiting their exposure to diverse perspectives and experiences.
McGhee also explores how segregation undermines social cohesion and political solidarity. When people live in homogeneous communities, it's easier to view those from different backgrounds as "other" and to believe stereotypes about them. This makes it harder to build the kind of broad-based political coalitions needed to address shared challenges like economic inequality or climate change.
The author argues that integration – both in housing and in other areas of life – can create enormous benefits for everyone. She points to research showing that diverse teams are more innovative and productive, and that exposure to different cultures and perspectives can lead to personal growth and expanded opportunities.
However, McGhee acknowledges that achieving meaningful integration is not easy. It requires actively working to undo centuries of discriminatory policies and ingrained social patterns. This might involve reforming zoning laws to allow for more diverse types of housing, investing in programs that promote integrated neighborhoods, and creating more opportunities for cross-racial interaction in schools and workplaces.
The author contends that these efforts are worth it, not just for moral reasons but for practical ones as well. By breaking down the barriers that separate different racial groups, we can create stronger communities, more dynamic economies, and a more cohesive society that is better equipped to face shared challenges.
Targeted Solutions for Structural Racism
Throughout the book, McGhee emphasizes that addressing racial inequality requires more than just "color-blind" policies. She argues that because structural racism has created such deep disparities, we need targeted solutions that specifically address the harm done to communities of color.
The author uses the example of the COVID-19 pandemic to illustrate this point. While the virus itself might be "color-blind," its impacts were far from equal. Black and Latinx people were much more likely to die from the virus due to a range of factors rooted in structural racism: they were more likely to work in frontline jobs, live in areas with higher air pollution, lack health insurance, and have pre-existing health conditions linked to long-term stress and inadequate healthcare.
McGhee argues that addressing these disparities requires acknowledging the role of race and implementing policies that specifically target the most affected communities. She contends that this approach isn't about giving special treatment to people of color, but rather about leveling a playing field that has been tilted for centuries.
For example, in addressing the racial wealth gap, the author suggests using the old redlining maps as a guide for where to focus efforts to provide affordable mortgages and startup capital. While these areas are no longer exclusively Black, they have suffered from decades of disinvestment and still tend to have high concentrations of people of color.
McGhee also advocates for reparations, arguing that they are necessary to address the compounded effects of centuries of discrimination. She points out that the wealth gap between Black and white Americans is largely the result of government policies that systematically excluded Black people from wealth-building opportunities, from the Homestead Act to the GI Bill. Reparations, in her view, are not about punishing current white Americans but about the government taking responsibility for its past actions and their ongoing consequences.
The author acknowledges that these targeted approaches often face resistance from those who see them as unfair to white people. However, she argues that this resistance is based on the flawed zero-sum thinking she critiques throughout the book. In reality, McGhee contends, policies that reduce racial inequality can benefit everyone by creating a more stable and prosperous society overall.
For instance, she cites economic projections showing that if the U.S. were to close its racial gaps in income and opportunity, the overall economy could grow by as much as $8 trillion by 2050 due to increased productivity and a revitalized middle class. This additional prosperity would benefit Americans of all races.
McGhee also emphasizes the importance of coupling race-conscious policies with broader universal programs. For example, she supports both targeted assistance for Black homeowners and universal affordable housing initiatives. This dual approach can help address specific racial disparities while also building broad-based support for progressive policies.
The author argues that by explicitly acknowledging and addressing racial inequality, we can create a more just and prosperous society for everyone. She calls on readers to reject the divisive rhetoric that pits racial groups against each other and instead embrace a vision of shared prosperity and mutual benefit.
The Solidarity Dividend
In the final sections of the book, McGhee introduces the concept of the "solidarity dividend" – the benefits that accrue to everyone when people come together across racial lines to fight for common causes. She argues that by rejecting zero-sum thinking and embracing cross-racial solidarity, we can create a society that works better for everyone.
The author illustrates this concept with several inspiring examples of successful multiracial organizing. One such story is that of Lewiston, Maine, a small city that was struggling economically in the 1990s after the closure of several factories. The city experienced a revitalization when it welcomed thousands of immigrants from Somalia and other African countries. Instead of seeing these newcomers as competition, many long-time residents embraced them. The result was a flourishing of new businesses, the creation of new schools, and a renewed sense of community.
McGhee also highlights the success of the Fight for $15 movement, which brought together workers of all races to advocate for a higher minimum wage. By emphasizing shared economic interests rather than racial divisions, this movement has achieved significant victories across the country.
The author argues that these examples demonstrate the power of multiracial coalitions to achieve meaningful change. When people come together across racial lines, they can build the political power necessary to challenge entrenched interests and push for policies that benefit the majority rather than a wealthy few.
McGhee contends that embracing this kind of solidarity is not just morally right but also practically beneficial. She points out that the real enemies of economic prosperity for most Americans are not racial minorities or immigrants, but rather the small elite that has rigged the economic and political systems in their favor. This elite minority benefits from racial division and actively works to stoke resentment and fear.
By recognizing this common adversary, people of all races can unite to push for policies that create a more equitable and prosperous society. This might include measures like strengthening labor protections, investing in public education and infrastructure, implementing progressive taxation, and addressing climate change.
The author acknowledges that building these coalitions isn't easy. It requires overcoming deeply ingrained prejudices and fears, as well as resisting the constant barrage of divisive messaging from certain media outlets and politicians. However, she argues that more and more people are seeing through these tactics and recognizing the potential power of cross-racial solidarity.
McGhee ends the book on a hopeful note, envisioning a future where Americans of all races work together to create a society with strong public goods, economic opportunity for all, and a sustainable relationship with the environment. She likens this to a public pool open to everyone – a shared resource that enriches the entire community.
The author calls on readers to actively work towards this vision by challenging their own biases, building relationships across racial lines, and supporting policies and movements that promote racial and economic justice. She argues that by doing so, we can all reap the benefits of the solidarity dividend and create a more just and prosperous society for everyone.
Conclusion
"The Sum of Us" offers a powerful and thought-provoking analysis of how racism has shaped American society and how it continues to harm people of all races. McGhee's central argument – that racism ultimately costs everyone, not just its immediate targets – challenges readers to rethink their understanding of racial issues and their own self-interest.
Throughout the book, McGhee weaves together historical analysis, contemporary case studies, and personal stories to illustrate the hidden costs of racism and the potential benefits of cross-racial solidarity. She makes a compelling case that addressing racial inequality is not just a moral imperative but an economic necessity.
The author's exploration of the zero-sum paradigm provides a useful framework for understanding why many white Americans continue to support policies that go against their economic interests. By exposing the flaws in this thinking, McGhee opens up possibilities for new coalitions and approaches to addressing shared challenges.
One of the strengths of the book is its balance between unflinching analysis of difficult truths and hopeful visions of a better future. While McGhee doesn't shy away from discussing the deep roots of racism in American society, she also provides inspiring examples of successful multiracial organizing and cooperation.
The book's emphasis on the interconnectedness of various social issues – from climate change to labor rights to housing policy – offers a holistic view of the challenges facing American society. This approach underscores the need for comprehensive solutions that address multiple forms of inequality simultaneously.
"The Sum of Us" is ultimately a call to action. McGhee challenges readers to move beyond guilt or defensiveness about racism and instead see addressing racial inequality as an opportunity to create a better society for everyone. She provides concrete suggestions for how individuals can contribute to this effort, from supporting integrated schools to joining multiracial activist groups.
While the book focuses primarily on the United States, many of its insights about the costs of racial division and the benefits of solidarity are applicable to other diverse societies around the world. As such, "The Sum of Us" offers valuable lessons for anyone interested in building more equitable and cohesive communities.
In conclusion, "The Sum of Us" is a timely and important contribution to ongoing discussions about race, inequality, and social change. By reframing racial justice as a common cause that benefits everyone, McGhee offers a powerful vision for how we can move beyond division and create a more prosperous and harmonious society.