Andrew Jackson was one of the most influential and controversial presidents in American history. In "American Lion," Pulitzer Prize-winning author Jon Meacham provides a vivid portrait of Jackson's tumultuous time as the nation's seventh president from 1829 to 1837. Drawing on newly discovered letters and papers, Meacham paints a nuanced picture of a complex man who transformed the role of the presidency and left an indelible mark on American politics.
Early Life and Rise to Fame
Andrew Jackson's life was shaped by tragedy and hardship from an early age. Born in 1767 in the frontier region between North and South Carolina, Jackson lost his father before he was even born. As a young teenager during the Revolutionary War, Jackson and his brother were captured by British forces. His brother died of smallpox while in captivity. Soon after, Jackson's mother also passed away while caring for sick relatives, leaving him an orphan at just 14 years old.
These early losses instilled in Jackson a fierce independence and fighting spirit that would define his character throughout his life. Despite his lack of formal education, Jackson studied law and was admitted to the bar in North Carolina in 1787 at the age of 20. He soon moved to the frontier territory that would become Tennessee, where he built a successful law practice and became a prominent figure.
It was in Tennessee that Jackson met and fell in love with Rachel Donelson. Their relationship was complicated by the fact that Rachel was still married to another man when they first wed in 1791. Though they remarried in 1794 after her divorce was finalized, the circumstances of their marriage would come back to haunt Jackson later in his political career.
Jackson gained national fame as a military leader, particularly for his decisive victory over the British at the Battle of New Orleans in 1815 during the War of 1812. His forceful personality and reputation as a man of the people propelled him into politics. He first ran for president in 1824, winning the popular vote but losing in the House of Representatives to John Quincy Adams in what Jackson's supporters dubbed a "corrupt bargain." Undeterred, Jackson ran again in 1828 and won in a landslide, ushering in the "Age of Jackson" in American politics.
A New Kind of President
When Andrew Jackson entered the White House in 1829, he brought a very different style of leadership than his predecessors. Previous presidents had largely deferred to Congress on matters of policy. Jackson, however, saw himself as the direct representative of the common people and was not afraid to forcefully assert his will.
One of Jackson's first acts as president was to replace many government officials with his own supporters, inaugurating what became known as the "spoils system." While criticized as cronyism by his opponents, Jackson defended the practice as making government more responsive to the will of the people rather than entrenched elites.
Jackson also made extensive use of the presidential veto power, striking down legislation he disagreed with far more frequently than previous presidents. His most famous veto came in 1832 when he refused to renew the charter of the Second Bank of the United States. Jackson viewed the bank as a corrupt monopoly that benefited wealthy financiers at the expense of ordinary citizens. His veto message articulated a vision of the presidency as the defender of the people against moneyed interests:
"It is to be regretted that the rich and powerful too often bend the acts of government to their selfish purposes...There are no necessary evils in government. Its evils exist only in its abuses. If it would confine itself to equal protection, and, as Heaven does its rains, shower its favors alike on the high and the low, the rich and the poor, it would be an unqualified blessing."
Jackson's forceful use of presidential power alarmed his critics, who accused him of acting like a monarch. But it resonated with many Americans who saw Jackson as their champion against a corrupt establishment. His supporters formed the Democratic Party, which portrayed itself as the party of the common man in contrast to the elitist National Republicans (later Whigs).
Controversies and Crises
Jackson's presidency was marked by intense political conflicts and several major crises that tested his leadership. One of the first controversies erupted over Jackson's choice of John Eaton as Secretary of War. Eaton had recently married Margaret "Peggy" O'Neill Timberlake, a woman of questionable reputation who was shunned by Washington society. Jackson, perhaps remembering the attacks on his own wife Rachel during the 1828 campaign, staunchly defended the Eatons and demanded that his cabinet socialize with them.
The "Petticoat Affair," as it became known, created deep divisions within Jackson's administration. It ultimately led to the resignation of most of his original cabinet, including Vice President John C. Calhoun. Jackson replaced them with loyal supporters, cementing his control over the executive branch but also intensifying partisan divisions.
An even greater crisis arose over the issue of nullification. In 1832, South Carolina declared that it would not enforce federal tariff laws it deemed unconstitutional and threatened to secede if the federal government tried to collect the tariffs by force. The nullification crisis brought the country to the brink of civil war and posed a fundamental challenge to federal authority.
Jackson responded forcefully, issuing a proclamation that declared nullification unconstitutional and obtaining congressional authorization to use military force if necessary. At the same time, he worked behind the scenes to broker a compromise that lowered tariff rates. The crisis was defused, but the underlying tensions between federal power and states' rights would continue to simmer.
Jackson faced another major showdown with his "Bank War" against the Second Bank of the United States. Jackson vetoed the renewal of the bank's charter in 1832, then went a step further by removing federal deposits from the bank and distributing them to state-chartered banks. This action outraged Jackson's opponents in Congress, who passed a formal censure of the president in 1834 - a rebuke that Jackson would fight to have expunged from the record for the rest of his presidency.
Indian Removal and Slavery
While Jackson is remembered as a champion of democracy and the common man, his legacy is deeply tarnished by his policies toward Native Americans and his defense of slavery. Jackson was a firm believer in westward expansion and saw the presence of independent Indian nations within U.S. borders as an obstacle to national development. As president, he vigorously pursued a policy of Indian removal, forcibly relocating tribes from their ancestral lands in the Southeast to territories west of the Mississippi River.
The Indian Removal Act of 1830 authorized the government to negotiate removal treaties with Indian tribes. While Jackson claimed this policy was for the Indians' own good, protecting them from encroachment by white settlers, in practice it led to immense suffering. The forced relocation of the Cherokee people in 1838, known as the Trail of Tears, resulted in thousands of deaths and stands as one of the great tragedies in American history.
Jackson was also a committed defender of slavery. He owned over 100 slaves himself and saw abolitionism as a threat to the social and economic order of the South. When abolitionists began sending anti-slavery literature to Southern states, Jackson supported censorship efforts and denounced the abolitionists as dangerous radicals bent on inciting slave rebellions.
These aspects of Jackson's presidency reveal the limitations of his democratic vision. For all his rhetoric about defending the rights of common people against powerful elites, Jackson's conception of "the people" was limited to white men. His policies toward Indians and African Americans reflected and reinforced the racial prejudices of his time.
Legacy and Impact
Andrew Jackson left an indelible mark on the American presidency and political system. He dramatically expanded the power and visibility of the office, establishing the president as the central figure in national politics. His forceful use of executive authority - including the veto, executive orders, and the removal of government officials - set precedents that would be followed by future presidents.
Jackson's appeal to the common man and his use of patronage to build a strong party organization helped usher in a new era of mass participatory politics. Voter turnout soared during his presidency as more Americans became engaged in the political process. The Democratic Party he helped create would dominate American politics for much of the 19th century.
At the same time, Jackson's combative style intensified partisan divisions and contributed to the breakdown of the previous Era of Good Feelings. His opponents coalesced into the Whig Party, setting up the Second Party System that would define American politics until the Civil War. The conflicts over federal power, banking, and tariffs that erupted during Jackson's presidency foreshadowed many of the issues that would divide the nation in the coming decades.
Jackson's legacy remains hotly debated to this day. To his admirers, he was a champion of democracy who expanded political participation and stood up for ordinary citizens against moneyed elites. To his critics, he was an autocrat who abused presidential power and pursued cruel policies toward Native Americans and African Americans.
In many ways, Andrew Jackson was the first modern American president - a polarizing figure who inspired intense loyalty from his supporters and fierce opposition from his detractors. His presidency marked a turning point in American political history, for better and for worse. Understanding Jackson and his era is crucial for understanding the development of American democracy and the tensions that continue to shape our politics today.
Key Moments and Decisions
The Nullification Crisis
One of the defining moments of Jackson's presidency was the Nullification Crisis of 1832-33. The crisis erupted when South Carolina declared that it would not enforce federal tariff laws it deemed unconstitutional and threatened to secede if the federal government attempted to collect the tariffs by force.
This crisis brought to a head long-simmering tensions between federal authority and states' rights. It posed a fundamental challenge to the power of the federal government and threatened to tear the nation apart just a few decades after its founding.
Jackson responded forcefully to this challenge. In December 1832, he issued a Proclamation to the People of South Carolina, forcefully rejecting the doctrine of nullification and asserting federal supremacy:
"I consider, then, the power to annul a law of the United States, assumed by one State, incompatible with the existence of the Union, contradicted expressly by the letter of the Constitution, unauthorized by its spirit, inconsistent with every principle on which It was founded, and destructive of the great object for which it was formed."
Jackson made it clear he was prepared to use military force if necessary to enforce federal law, famously threatening to personally lead an army to South Carolina and hang the leading nullifiers as traitors.
At the same time, Jackson worked behind the scenes to defuse the crisis. He supported a compromise tariff bill in 1833 that lowered rates, giving South Carolina a face-saving way to back down. The crisis was resolved without bloodshed, but the underlying tensions between federal power and states' rights would continue to simmer in the decades leading up to the Civil War.
Jackson's forceful response to nullification reinforced federal authority and set an important precedent for future presidents in dealing with challenges to national unity. It also burnished his image as a strong leader committed to preserving the Union at all costs.
The Bank War
Another defining battle of Jackson's presidency was his war against the Second Bank of the United States. Jackson viewed the Bank as a corrupt monopoly that benefited wealthy financiers at the expense of ordinary citizens. He was determined to destroy it, famously declaring to his vice president Martin Van Buren: "The bank is trying to kill me, but I will kill it!"
The Bank War came to a head in 1832 when Congress passed a bill to renew the Bank's charter four years early. Jackson vetoed the bill, arguing that the Bank was unconstitutional and dangerous to American liberty:
"It is to be regretted that the rich and powerful too often bend the acts of government to their selfish purposes... In the full enjoyment of the gifts of Heaven and the fruits of superior industry, economy, and virtue, every man is equally entitled to protection by law; but when the laws undertake to add to these natural and just advantages artificial distinctions, to grant titles, gratuities, and exclusive privileges, to make the rich richer and the potent more powerful, the humble members of society — the farmers, mechanics, and laborers — who have neither the time nor the means of securing like favors to themselves, have a right to complain of the injustice of their Government."
Jackson's veto message articulated a populist vision that resonated with many Americans who saw the Bank as a symbol of elite privilege. It helped propel Jackson to a landslide reelection victory later that year.
But Jackson wasn't content to simply block the Bank's recharter. In 1833, he took the extraordinary step of removing federal deposits from the Bank and distributing them to state-chartered banks. This action outraged Jackson's opponents in Congress, who passed a formal censure of the president in 1834.
The Bank War had far-reaching consequences for the American financial system and economy. The destruction of the national bank led to a proliferation of state banks and a credit boom that would eventually result in the Panic of 1837. But it also cemented Jackson's image as a champion of the common man against moneyed interests - a powerful political narrative that would shape American politics for decades to come.
Indian Removal
One of the most controversial aspects of Jackson's presidency was his policy of Indian removal. Jackson was a firm believer in westward expansion and saw the presence of independent Indian nations within U.S. borders as an obstacle to national development. As president, he vigorously pursued a policy of relocating Native American tribes from their ancestral lands in the Southeast to territories west of the Mississippi River.
The Indian Removal Act of 1830, passed at Jackson's urging, authorized the government to negotiate removal treaties with Indian tribes. In his annual message to Congress in 1830, Jackson argued that removal was necessary for both the survival of Native Americans and the progress of white settlers:
"It will separate the Indians from immediate contact with settlements of whites; free them from the power of the States; enable them to pursue happiness in their own way and under their own rude institutions; will retard the progress of decay, which is lessening their numbers, and perhaps cause them gradually, under the protection of the Government and through the influence of good counsels, to cast off their savage habits and become an interesting, civilized, and Christian community."
While Jackson claimed this policy was for the Indians' own good, in practice it led to immense suffering and loss of life. Many tribes resisted removal, leading to conflicts like the Second Seminole War in Florida. The most infamous episode was the forced relocation of the Cherokee people in 1838, known as the Trail of Tears, which resulted in thousands of deaths.
Jackson's Indian removal policy reflected the racial attitudes of his time and the relentless push for territorial expansion. It dramatically accelerated the dispossession of Native Americans and paved the way for rapid white settlement of the Southeast. The human cost was enormous, and the effects on Native American societies and cultures were devastating.
This aspect of Jackson's presidency remains one of the most criticized. It reveals the limitations of his democratic vision and the extent to which his conception of "the people" excluded Native Americans and other non-white groups.
Personal Life and Character
To understand Andrew Jackson's presidency, it's crucial to understand the man himself. Jackson was a complex and often contradictory figure whose personal experiences deeply shaped his political views and leadership style.
Born into poverty on the Carolina frontier, Jackson developed a fierce independence and fighting spirit from an early age. The loss of his entire family during the Revolutionary War left deep emotional scars and instilled in him a lifelong hatred of the British. His lack of formal education was compensated for by a sharp intellect and iron determination.
Jackson was known for his volatile temper and readiness to resort to violence to defend his honor. He fought in several duels, including one in 1806 where he killed a man who had insulted his wife. Even as president, he carried bullets in his body from past duels and altercations.
Yet Jackson could also be warm and charismatic, inspiring intense loyalty from his followers. He was a skilled politician who understood how to appeal to the common man and build a strong political organization. His supporters saw him as a heroic figure who would defend their interests against corrupt elites.
Central to understanding Jackson was his relationship with his wife Rachel. Their marriage was a love match that endured despite scandal and political attacks. Rachel's death just before Jackson took office left him grief-stricken. Throughout his presidency, he relied heavily on his adopted son Andrew Jackson Jr. and his niece Emily Donelson, who served as his hostess at the White House.
Jackson's personality was reflected in his governing style. He was decisive and forceful, unafraid to take bold action or confront his opponents head-on. He saw himself as the direct representative of the people and was willing to push the boundaries of executive power to achieve his goals. This approach made him a transformative president but also an intensely polarizing one.
Final Thoughts
Andrew Jackson's presidency marked a turning point in American political history. He expanded the power of the presidency, championed a more participatory form of democracy, and reshaped the American party system. His forceful personality and populist appeal changed the way presidents interacted with the public and conducted themselves in office.
At the same time, Jackson's legacy is deeply complicated by his policies toward Native Americans and his defense of slavery. His vision of democracy, while more inclusive than that of the founding generation, still excluded large segments of the population. The tensions between federal power and states' rights that came to a head during his presidency would continue to shape American politics in the decades leading up to the Civil War.
Understanding Jackson and his era is crucial for understanding the development of American democracy and the roots of many political debates that continue to this day. Was he a champion of the common man or a demagogue who abused his power? A defender of the Union or a precursor to the Confederacy? An expander of democracy or an oppressor of minorities?
The debates over Jackson's legacy reflect ongoing tensions in American political culture between populism and elitism, federal power and states' rights, majority rule and minority rights. By grappling with the complexities and contradictions of Jackson's presidency, we can gain valuable insights into the challenges and dilemmas of American democracy - both in the past and in our own time.
Jon Meacham's "American Lion" provides a nuanced and compelling portrait of this pivotal president, neither wholly condemning nor wholly celebrating him. By placing Jackson in the context of his times while also critically examining his actions and their consequences, Meacham allows readers to draw their own conclusions about Jackson's ultimate impact on American history. Whether one views Jackson as a hero or villain, his outsized influence on the presidency and American politics is undeniable.