At Home

Introduction

Bill Bryson's "At Home: A Short History of Private Life" is a fascinating journey through the everyday objects and spaces we often take for granted. This book invites readers to explore the hidden stories behind the seemingly mundane aspects of our homes, from the kitchen to the bedroom and beyond. Bryson's unique approach combines historical facts, amusing anecdotes, and thought-provoking insights to shed light on how our domestic lives have evolved over time.

The Kitchen: A Tale of Cans and Food Safety

The Evolution of Canned Food

One of the most significant innovations in food preservation was the development of canned food. This journey began in the late eighteenth century when a Frenchman named Francois Appert proposed storing food in glass jars. While this was a breakthrough, the jars didn't seal well, allowing air and bacteria to contaminate the food.

The real game-changer came in the early nineteenth century when Englishman Bryan Donkin invented the sealed metal can. However, these early cans were far from perfect:

• They were made from wrought iron, making them extremely heavy.
• Opening them was a significant challenge.
• Some cans came with instructions on how to break them open with a hammer and chisel.
• Soldiers issued canned food as rations often had to shoot the can or stab it with a bayonet to access the food inside.

It wasn't until 1925 that the can opener was invented, making access to canned food much easier for the average person.

The Dark Side of Food Production

While canned food was revolutionizing food preservation, the food industry in the seventeenth century was plagued by a serious problem: food adulteration. With little official oversight, consumers could never be sure of what they were actually eating. Some common practices included:

• Cutting sugar with gypsum, sand, or even dust.
• Mixing tea leaves with dust or dirt.
• Adding sulphuric acid to vinegar.
• Putting chalk in milk.

These practices highlight the importance of modern food safety regulations and government oversight in ensuring the quality and safety of our food supply.

Building Materials: From Wood to Stone to Brick

The Challenges of Early American Settlers

When British colonists arrived in North America, they faced unexpected challenges in building their homes. The lack of limestone, a key ingredient in their traditional building methods, forced them to adapt:

• Early houses were made from mud and sticks, but without lime to hold them together, they were fragile and short-lived.
• It was rare to find a house that had stood for more than ten years.

The Turn to Wood and Stone

Faced with these challenges, the colonists turned to alternative building materials:

1. Wood became a popular choice due to its abundance and sturdiness.
2. However, timber supplies were quickly depleted, partly due to Native American tribes clearing forests for hunting.
3. Attempts to manage tree growth, such as cutting off the tops of trees to encourage rapid regrowth, proved unsustainable.
4. Eventually, colonists began using stone as a building material.

The British Perspective on Stone

Interestingly, while stone was plentiful in Britain, it wasn't widely used for building homes:

• Stone was heavy and expensive to transport.
• Even though England had rich limestone deposits, extracting and moving the stone was cost-prohibitive.
• Only grand projects like churches and castles were typically built from stone.
• Building a monastery, for example, required at least 40,000 cartloads of stone.

The Rise and Fall of Brick in London

In areas where limestone was scarce, such as London, brick became a popular building material:

• London had abundant iron-rich clay that could be baked into bricks on-site, eliminating transportation costs.
• However, the popularity of brick fluctuated due to various factors:
  1. The American Revolutionary War led to a brick tax in 1784 to make up for lost revenue.
  2. Brick, especially red brick, became associated with poor taste.
  3. Prominent figures like architect Isaac Ware called brick an "improper" material for refined homes.

As a result, alternatives to brick gained popularity:

• Stucco, a mixture of cement, lime, and water, was used to "glaze" brick houses, making them look like stone.
• Some homeowners built stone facades to cover the brick underneath, as seen in the Apsley House in London's Hyde Park.

The Bedroom: A History of Discomfort and Peculiar Beliefs

The Uncomfortable Reality of 19th Century Beds

While modern mattresses may have their issues, they pale in comparison to the beds of the nineteenth century:

• Mattresses were often stuffed with straw, feathers, hair, sea moss, or sawdust.
• These materials attracted a variety of unwanted guests, including bedbugs, moths, mice, and rats.
• It was common for people to feel movement under their bedspread from these uninvited bedmates.
• In 1897, an American girl named Eliza Ann Summers wrote about taking her shoes to bed as a weapon against rats.

Sexual Mores and Bedroom Practices

The bedroom was also a place where societal beliefs about sex and health intersected in peculiar ways:

• Many people believed that sexual arousal during conception or pregnancy could damage the fetus.
• Women were advised to avoid "stimulating" activities like reading or playing board games.
• Men were taught that releasing seminal fluid outside of intercourse with their wife would weaken their body and mind.
• Masturbation was referred to as "self-pollution" and strictly forbidden.

These beliefs led to some unusual inventions:

• In the 1850s, the Penile Pricking Ring was created to prevent nocturnal erections.
• This device was lined with sharp, inward-pointing pins that would prick a man's penis if it swelled during the night.

The Bathroom: From Roman Luxury to Medieval Aversion

The Roman Bath Culture

Ancient Romans had a very different relationship with bathing than later generations:

• Bathing was a social activity and lifestyle choice, not just a hygienic necessity.
• Roman bath houses were grand affairs, often including:
  • Libraries
  • Barbers
  • Tennis courts
  • Brothels
• Bathing was accessible to people of all social classes.

The Christian Shift Away from Bathing

Early Christian attitudes marked a significant change in bathing habits:

• Many early Christians believed that an unwashed man was a holy man.
• In 1170, the undergarments of the Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Becket, were found full of lice on his deathbed.
• English monk Godric became a saint after making a pilgrimage from England to Jerusalem without taking a single bath.

The Impact of the Bubonic Plague

The bubonic plague, which began around 1350, further solidified medieval society's aversion to bathing:

• Initially, people didn't make the connection between hygiene and disease.
• Learned men concluded that bathing was bad because hot baths opened up the pores, making the body susceptible to infection.
• For hundreds of years, bathing was associated with disease.
• People felt "safer" covered in sweat and dirt, believing closed pores would keep illness at bay.
• Skin rashes and persistent itching became a normal part of life.

This misunderstanding of hygiene contributed to the rapid spread of the plague and other infectious diseases during this period.

The Dining Room: The Curious History of Salt and Pepper

The Essential Nature of Salt

Salt has played a crucial role in human history:

• It is essential for human survival.
• Humans have gone to great lengths to secure salt throughout history.
• The Aztecs would dry urine to make edible salt.
• Societies have traveled and fought wars over salt.
• Powerful figures often used salt to display their wealth and status.
  • For example, in 1513, Henry VIII of England ordered 25,000 oxen to be slaughtered and preserved in vast quantities of salt.

The Peculiar Popularity of Pepper

Unlike salt, pepper isn't necessary for human survival, yet it has become a staple condiment:

• Ancient Romans played a major role in establishing pepper's popularity.
• Roman demand for pepper drove up its price and status.
• In 408 CE, when Goth tribes nearly destroyed the Roman Empire, the Romans offered 3,000 pounds of pepper to call off the invasion.
• In 1468, Duke Karl of Bourgogne ordered 380 pounds of pepper as decoration for his wedding, simply to showcase his wealth.

The Living Room: A Space for Social Evolution

From Formal Parlor to Casual Living Space

The concept of a living room has evolved significantly over time:

• In the 19th century, the formal parlor was a space reserved for receiving guests and special occasions.
• It was often the best-furnished room in the house but rarely used.
• The shift to more casual living in the 20th century saw the parlor transform into the living room.
• This change reflected a broader social shift towards more relaxed and informal lifestyles.

The Impact of Technology

The living room has been greatly influenced by technological advancements:

• The introduction of the radio in the 1920s made the living room a gathering place for families.
• Television further cemented the living room's role as the center of family entertainment in the 1950s and beyond.
• More recently, the internet and smart home devices have again transformed how we use and interact in our living spaces.

The Study: A Room for Intellectual Pursuits

The Evolution of the Home Office

The study or home office has a rich history:

• In medieval times, only the wealthy had dedicated spaces for reading and writing.
• The Renaissance saw an increase in literacy and the rise of the "gentleman scholar," leading to more homes including studies.
• During the Industrial Revolution, as more people worked outside the home, the study became a space for after-hours work and personal pursuits.
• Today, with the rise of remote work, the home office has taken on new importance in many households.

The Changing Nature of Books and Information

The study has also been a reflection of how we store and access information:

• Personal libraries were once a sign of wealth and education.
• The invention of the printing press made books more accessible, changing the nature of home libraries.
• In the digital age, physical books are often complemented or replaced by e-readers and online resources.

The Attic and Basement: Spaces of Storage and Mystery

The Attic: A Repository of Memories

Attics have long held a special place in our homes and imaginations:

• They often serve as storage spaces for items with sentimental value.
• In literature and popular culture, attics are frequently portrayed as mysterious or magical places.
• The contents of attics can provide fascinating insights into family histories and past eras.

The Basement: From Root Cellar to Rec Room

Basements have undergone significant changes in function over time:

• Originally, many homes had root cellars for storing food.
• As home heating systems evolved, basements became necessary to house furnaces and other utilities.
• In the mid-20th century, finished basements became popular as additional living spaces or recreation rooms.
• Today, basements continue to serve a variety of functions, from home theaters to home gyms.

The Garden: An Extension of the Home

From Necessity to Leisure

The role of gardens in our homes has changed dramatically:

• Historically, gardens were primarily for growing food and medicinal herbs.
• The concept of ornamental gardens gained popularity among the wealthy in the Renaissance.
• The 18th and 19th centuries saw the rise of public gardens and parks.
• Today, home gardens serve a variety of purposes, from growing food to providing relaxation and connection with nature.

The Impact of Gardening on Architecture

Gardens have influenced home design in various ways:

• The desire for a connection between indoor and outdoor spaces led to the development of features like patios and large windows.
• The popularity of conservatories and sunrooms reflects our desire to bring elements of the garden inside.
• Modern sustainable architecture often incorporates green roofs and vertical gardens.

The Hallway: A Space of Transition and First Impressions

The Evolution of the Entrance

The hallway or entryway has changed significantly over time:

• In medieval homes, people often entered directly into the main living area.
• The concept of a dedicated entrance hall developed as homes became larger and more complex.
• In the Victorian era, the hallway became an important space for displaying wealth and taste.
• Modern hallways often serve multiple functions, including storage and as a transitional space between the outside world and the private areas of the home.

The Psychology of Entrances

The design of hallways and entrances can have a significant impact on how we perceive a home:

• The size and decoration of an entrance can set expectations for the rest of the house.
• In feng shui and other design philosophies, the entrance is considered crucial for the flow of energy in a home.
• The way we organize and decorate our hallways often reflects our personalities and lifestyles.

The Roof: Shelter and Innovation

From Thatch to High-Tech

The evolution of roofing materials and techniques tells a story of human ingenuity:

• Early homes often used thatch, which was effective but required frequent maintenance.
• The development of tiles and shingles provided more durable options.
• Metal roofing became popular during the Industrial Revolution.
• Modern roofing materials include synthetic options designed for energy efficiency and durability.

The Impact of Climate and Culture

Roof designs vary greatly around the world, reflecting local climates and cultural preferences:

• Steep roofs in snowy regions help prevent snow accumulation.
• Flat roofs in arid climates can serve as additional living space.
• Traditional Japanese roofs with their distinctive curves reflect both practical considerations and aesthetic preferences.

The Windows: Letting in Light and Air

From Luxury to Necessity

The history of windows reflects changing attitudes towards light and ventilation:

• Early windows were often small and covered with animal hides or shutters.
• Glass windows were once a luxury only available to the wealthy.
• The development of cheaper glass-making techniques in the 17th century made windows more common.
• The Victorian era saw a preference for large windows and natural light.
• Modern windows are designed for energy efficiency as well as aesthetics.

Windows and Health

Our understanding of the importance of natural light and fresh air has influenced window design:

• The discovery of vitamin D and its connection to sunlight led to larger windows in hospitals and homes.
• The development of air conditioning changed how we think about ventilation and window placement.
• Today, there's a renewed focus on the health benefits of natural light and connection to the outdoors through windows.

Conclusion: The Ever-Changing Nature of Home

As we've seen through this journey through the rooms and spaces of our homes, what we consider "home" has changed dramatically over the centuries. From the materials we use to build our houses to the way we organize and use our living spaces, our homes reflect the evolving needs, technologies, and cultural values of society.

Some key takeaways from this exploration include:

1. Adaptation to local conditions: Early settlers in America had to adapt their building techniques to the available materials, leading to innovations in construction.

2. The impact of social attitudes: Beliefs about health and morality have significantly influenced how we use spaces like bedrooms and bathrooms.

3. Technological innovations: From canned food to modern windows, technological advancements have continuously reshaped our domestic lives.

4. The influence of fashion and status: The materials and designs we choose for our homes often reflect broader social trends and desires to display wealth or taste.

5. The balance between necessity and luxury: While some aspects of our homes serve basic needs, others, like ornamental gardens or pepper on the dining table, reflect our pursuit of pleasure and status.

6. The cyclical nature of trends: What's considered desirable or healthy in home design often changes over time, sometimes returning to practices from the past.

7. The home as a reflection of society: Our domestic spaces mirror the larger social, economic, and cultural shifts happening in the world around us.

As we look to the future, it's clear that our homes will continue to evolve. New technologies, changing work patterns, environmental concerns, and shifting social norms will all play a role in shaping the homes of tomorrow. By understanding the rich history of our domestic spaces, we can better appreciate the homes we live in today and imagine the possibilities for the future.

Bill Bryson's "At Home" reminds us that every corner of our living spaces has a story to tell. From the salt and pepper shakers on our dining tables to the roofs over our heads, our homes are repositories of human history, ingenuity, and culture. The next time you walk through your house, take a moment to consider the long and fascinating journey that has led to the creation of the modern home. You might find that your everyday surroundings are far more extraordinary than you ever imagined.