Introduction
In recent years, the world has experienced significant upheavals, from the unexpected election of Donald Trump to the ongoing debates about borders, migration, and climate change. Among these events, Brexit stands out as a particularly divisive issue in the United Kingdom, emphasizing the distinction between those considered "British" and those deemed outsiders. However, this dichotomy overlooks a crucial aspect of British history: the long-standing presence and contributions of people from diverse backgrounds, particularly those of African descent.
David Olusoga's book "Black and British" challenges the notion that British history can be told without acknowledging the integral role played by Black people. By delving deeper into the historical context, Olusoga reveals that the perceived divide between "white Britain" and "Black Britain" is merely an illusion. This comprehensive exploration of Black British history spans over a thousand years, from the arrival of the first Africans in Britain to the present day.
The Overlooked Role of Black People in British History
One of the most striking aspects of British history is how often the role of Black people is overlooked or forgotten. This oversight is exemplified by the story of Bunce Island, located at the mouth of the Sierra Leone River in West Africa. For over a century, this island was home to a fortress that played a central role in the British slave trade. From this location, tens of thousands of enslaved Africans were shipped to plantations in the Caribbean and the Americas.
Between 1618 and 1807, Britain was the leading slave-trading nation in the Atlantic. During the 18th century alone, half of all the millions of Africans forced into slavery were transported on British ships. Despite this significant involvement, Britain's role in the slave trade is often glossed over or ignored in historical narratives.
The rediscovery of Bunce Island in the 1970s by archaeologists highlights how this crucial aspect of British history had been forgotten for generations. Historian Joseph Opala referred to the site as the "Pompeii" of the Atlantic slave trade, emphasizing its historical importance.
This oversight extends beyond the slave trade itself. Black people were not just victims of British exploitation; they were also important actors in British history. For example, the famous explorer Francis Drake included four Africans as part of his crew during his mission to circumnavigate the globe in 1577. Similarly, Admiral Lord Horatio Nelson, renowned for his defeat of Napoleon's French navy in 1805, was accompanied by Black sailors during the Battle of Trafalgar. In fact, Nelson's Column in central London includes a brass relief depicting a Black sailor standing near Nelson at the moment of his death.
These examples demonstrate that both as victims and as actors, Black people have been central to British history. It's high time their story is heard and acknowledged as an integral part of the nation's past.
The Long History of Black Presence in Britain
Contrary to popular belief, the presence of Black people in Britain dates back much further than many realize. The first Africans arrived in Britain as early as the third century CE, during the time of the Roman Empire. These early Black inhabitants were Roman subjects, referred to in historical records as "Aurelian moors." They arrived as part of military units serving in the Empire's northern garrison in England, at a fortress known as Aballava, in what is now the county of Cumbria.
Archaeological discoveries have provided further evidence of the long-standing presence of Africans in Britain. The "Ivory Bangle Lady," whose remains were discovered in York in 1901, was an African woman who lived in third-century Britain. Analysis of her remains revealed that she was of North African descent and had traveled through the Empire from Mediterranean North Africa to England. Her high social status was evident from the luxury goods buried with her, including glass beads, bracelets, bronze lockets, and glass perfume bottles.
Another significant discovery was the "Beachy Head" woman, whose remains were found in southern England. Radioisotope analysis showed that she was of sub-Saharan origin and lived in England between 125 and 245 BCE. She was a second or third-generation Afro-Roman who had been raised in southern England and was well-nourished in her youth, suggesting a comfortable social class.
These findings conclusively demonstrate that Black people have been part of British society for well over a thousand years, challenging the misconception that their presence is a recent phenomenon.
The Complex Attitudes Towards Black People in Tudor and Elizabethan England
The Tudor and Elizabethan periods, spanning from 1485 to 1603, provide limited but intriguing glimpses into the lives of Black people in England. Historical records mention "three blackamore maids" employed by a London alderman in 1586 and the baptism of Mary, referred to as a "negro of John White," in Plymouth in 1594. While these records are sparse, they indicate that most Black people in Tudor England worked as domestic servants, occupying lower social positions.
However, there were exceptions to this rule. John Blanke, for instance, was a Black trumpeter who served in the Tudor court. He likely arrived in England as part of Catherine of Aragon's entourage in 1501 and later performed at the celebrations marking the birth of Prince Henry, the second child of Henry VIII and Catherine.
The attitudes towards Black people during this pre-Atlantic slave trade era were complex and often contradictory. This complexity is reflected in the works of William Shakespeare, particularly in his play "Othello." The play's portrayal of its titular character, a Black man who becomes a high-ranking general in the Venetian army, reveals the ambivalences in Elizabethan views of people of African descent.
On one hand, the play's focus on Othello's dark skin and exotic origins reflects Elizabethan anxieties about Blackness. The tragic end of Othello's marriage to the white Desdemona, culminating in her murder, points to fears about interracial relationships. On the other hand, Shakespeare depicts Othello with empathy and nuance, portraying him as valiant, dignified, and honorable. This portrayal stands in stark contrast to the evil white Venetian character, Iago, who harbors destructive hatred for Othello.
However, these nuanced views of Black people would soon disappear with the rise of the transatlantic slave trade, leading to more rigid and racist ideologies.
The Rise of the Slave Trade and Hardening of Racist Ideologies
The rapid expansion of the slave trade in the second half of the 17th century had profound consequences for relations between white and Black people. This shift is starkly illustrated by the demographic changes in Barbados. In 1637, out of a population of 6,000, there were only 200 enslaved Africans on the island. By 1680, this number had skyrocketed to 38,000, far outnumbering the white slave-owning class.
This expansion coincided with a fundamental shift in social stratification. Prior to the rise of slavery, society was primarily divided along class lines, with white indentured servants occupying lower social rungs alongside Black people. However, the Barbados Slave Code of 1661 marked a pivotal change, drawing a clear distinction between "white" servants and "negro" slaves. This code granted all white men, regardless of class, rights that were denied to all Black people, effectively splitting society along racial lines.
The rise of the British slave trade was thus accompanied by the development of a racial ideology that stratified society according to white and Black categories. This shift had far-reaching consequences, both in the colonies and in Britain itself.
By the mid-1700s, there were between 3,000 and 4,000 Black people living in Britain. Most of these Black Britons lived extremely constrained lives as enslaved people or low-ranking servants. During the first half of the 17th century, Black servants even became a status symbol among the privileged classes. Wealthy slave owners often posed with enslaved people for portraits, as seen in George Stubbs's 1759 painting "Henry Fox and the Third Earl of Albemarle Shooting at Goodwood," which depicts a young Black man holding the reins of his master's horse.
The dehumanization of Black people under slavery reached cruel extremes. Some enslaved people in England were marked as human property by brass or copper collars padlocked around their necks. This practice is reflected in an advertisement by goldsmith Mathew Dyer, offering his services to produce "silver padlocks for Blacks or Dogs," equating enslaved people with animals.
The rise of slavery and its accompanying racist ideology thus drastically constrained the lives of Black people both in the colonies and within Britain itself, marking a dark chapter in British history.
The Mansfield Judgment: A Critical Blow to Slave Owners' Rights in Britain
The year 1772 saw a landmark legal case that would have far-reaching implications for the institution of slavery in Britain. The case centered around James Somerset, an escaped slave who had been brought to London by his owner, Charles Stewart, from Virginia. After escaping and being recaptured, Somerset sought the help of Granville Sharp, a prominent abolitionist.
Sharp took Somerset's cause to the British courts, highlighting a crucial legal ambiguity. While slave-dependent British colonies had clear laws protecting the slave system and slave owners' rights, Britain itself did not. This raised important questions: Could an enslaved person continue to be held in captivity on British soil if Britain had no explicit law authorizing slavery? Did slave masters have the right to have escaped slaves in Britain forcibly returned to them?
The case, presided over by Lord Mansfield, became a national sensation. The court gallery was packed with spectators, and the proceedings were widely reported in newspapers. After hearing arguments from both sides, Lord Mansfield took a month to reach his verdict. He ultimately ruled that because there was no "positive law" affirming slavery on British soil, "the black must be discharged." In other words, James Somerset was declared a free man, and Charles Stewart could not force him back into slavery.
The Mansfield Judgment was widely interpreted as granting freedom to all enslaved Black people in Britain. While the exact scope of the ruling has been debated, at the time, it was understood by many – particularly enslaved people and their abolitionist supporters – as a declaration that all those in England were free.
This ruling constituted one of the first and most important victories for enslaved Black Britons against their masters. It challenged the legal basis of slavery within Britain itself and set a precedent that would contribute to the eventual abolition of slavery throughout the British Empire.
The Rise of Abolitionism: A Popular and Political Movement
The abolitionist movement in Britain gained significant momentum in the late 18th century, galvanized by reports of the horrific conditions aboard slave ships. One particularly shocking incident was the Zong massacre of 1781, where the crew of a slave ship threw 133 enslaved people overboard to preserve supplies and ensure that at least some captives reached Jamaica alive. The subsequent insurance claim filed by the ship's owners for the loss of "cargo" sparked public outrage when it came to light in 1783.
The formal abolitionist movement was born in 1787 with the formation of the Society Effecting the Abolition of the Slave Trade by nine Quakers and Evangelical Christians, including Granville Sharp. Black Britons played a central role in the campaign, with former enslaved people like Olaudah Equiano and Ottobah Cugoano writing bestselling autobiographies that exposed the horrors of slavery. They, along with others, formed the Sons of Africa, a group of people who had experienced slavery or were descended from slaves. Members of this group traveled the country, speaking about the atrocities of the trade.
The abolitionists waged a highly successful public campaign, pioneering the use of mass petitions and boycotts. Between 1787 and 1792, an astonishing 1.5 million British people, out of a population of 12 million, signed petitions against the slave trade. The movement also encouraged the boycott of rum and sugar produced by enslaved people.
These tireless efforts culminated in the passage of the Slave Trade Act in 1807, which officially ended the British slave trade. However, it took another 26 years of campaigning for parliament to pass the Slavery Abolition Act in 1833, which ended slavery altogether in British dominions. All enslaved people in British territories were finally set free in 1838.
The success of the abolitionist movement demonstrated the power of organized activism and public opinion in effecting significant social and political change. It also highlighted the crucial role played by Black voices in shaping British policy and society.
Britain's Continued Economic Complicity in American Slavery
Despite abolishing slavery within its own territories, Britain remained economically entangled with American slavery well into the 19th century. This complicity was largely due to the cotton trade, which experienced a boom following Eli Whitney's invention of the cotton gin in 1792. Whitney's machine dramatically reduced the time it took to separate cotton seeds from fiber, making cotton production much more profitable and leading to increased demand for slave labor in the American South.
The growth in cotton production led to a merging of interests between American slave owners and British manufacturers. Cotton from American plantations was shipped to northern British towns such as Manchester, Lancashire, and North Cheshire, which had become centers of cotton manufacturing during the Industrial Revolution. Between 1848 and 1858, the proportion of cotton imported into Britain from the United States never fell below 73 percent and reached as high as 97 percent.
This economic entanglement became starkly apparent with the outbreak of the American Civil War in 1861. The war dealt a massive blow to the British economy, with 70 percent of the cotton industry labor force in Britain out of work by 1862 due to disruptions in cotton cultivation in the southern United States. As a result, many large northern manufacturing towns, such as Liverpool, supported the southern Confederacy in the Civil War.
The British government initially took a position of neutrality, refusing to support the Union forces of President Abraham Lincoln against the Confederacy, despite having outlawed slavery in its own dominions. This stance changed, however, with Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation on January 1, 1863, which freed all enslaved people in America. After this declaration, the American Civil War was explicitly understood as an armed struggle against slavery, and Britain finally aligned itself with the North.
This episode in British history highlights the complex and often contradictory nature of the country's relationship with slavery and racial issues. While Britain had taken a moral stand against slavery within its own territories, economic interests continued to tie it to the institution elsewhere, demonstrating the challenges of fully disengaging from a global system built on exploitation.
The Rise of Colonialism and British Control of African Territory
The late 19th century marked a significant shift in Britain's relationship with Africa. In 1884, just months after the British and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society celebrated 50 years since the abolition of British slavery, the Berlin Conference was convened. This meeting of European powers, which notably excluded any African representation, aimed to divide the continent of Africa among the "Great Powers" such as Britain, Germany, France, and Belgium.
This conference marked the beginning of the "Scramble for Africa," a period of rapid colonial expansion across the continent. The statistics are staggering: in 1870, 90 percent of Africa was under African rule, with only 10 percent under European control. By 1900, these figures had reversed, with Europeans controlling 90 percent of the continent. During this period, nine million square miles of land were added to European empires, with Britain emerging as the most successful colonial power. By 1900, one in three Africans – some 45 million people – was a British subject.
This rapid expansion was made possible by several technological advances. Shallow-drafted, steam-powered riverboats turned Africa's rivers into highways for European penetration into the continent's interior. Medical advances, particularly the development of quinine, allowed Europeans to survive in tropical regions without succumbing to diseases like malaria. Perhaps most significantly, the invention of the Maxim machine gun provided European forces with a devastating military advantage over African armies.
The rise of colonialism was accompanied by the emergence of social Darwinism, a misapplication of Charles Darwin's theory of evolution to human societies. Colonial powers used this pseudo-scientific ideology to justify their dominion over "lower" races, with the act of conquest itself taken as proof of European superiority. This harder, more biological view of race was reflected in the popularity of "human zoos" during this period, where "natives" from the colonies were displayed for the entertainment of European audiences.
Colonialism thus marked a new chapter in the relationship between Britain and African peoples. While Britain had abolished slavery within its own territories, it continued to exploit and dominate African peoples through colonial rule. This period saw the entrenchment of racist ideologies and the establishment of systems of control and exploitation that would have long-lasting effects on both Africa and Britain.
Black Servicemen in World War I: Contributions and Discrimination
World War I saw significant involvement from Black servicemen, both from Africa and the Caribbean, in support of the British war effort. However, their contributions were often overlooked, and they faced widespread discrimination and abuse.
In Africa, one million people were recruited as "carriers" – porters carrying supplies to British troops fighting the Germans. Of these, at least 100,000 died during the war, highlighting the significant toll the conflict took on African lives.
In Europe, the British War Office initially refused to allow Black men to fight against the Germans, fearing that it would undermine racial prestige and threaten British control over Black subjects in the colonies. Instead, they created a special regiment for Black servicemen – the British West Indies Regiment (BWIR) – which was primarily used as a labor battalion to support white troops.
Despite these restrictions, some Black people managed to circumvent the military color barrier. The most famous Black British soldier to serve in the war was William Tull, whose grandfather had been a slave in Barbados. Tull achieved the rank of second lieutenant, a position that should have been impossible for a Black Briton to attain given army regulations stipulating that all candidates for officer rank must be of "pure European descent." Tull led white soldiers into combat against the Germans on the Western Front before being killed in action in France in March 1918.
However, the contributions of Black troops were largely unrecognized after the war. No Black troops were allowed to march in the victory parade held in London in 1919 to mark the defeat of the Germans. Moreover, the end of the war led to a significant backlash against Black people in Britain. Returning white soldiers, facing competition for jobs in the post-war economy, were often resentful of Black servicemen. Black workers who had found employment during the war due to labor shortages were systematically dismissed to make way for demobilized white men.
Racial tensions escalated dramatically in 1919, with Black people routinely attacked by white mobs in cities such as Glasgow, London, and Liverpool. This violence culminated in the lynching of Charles Wootton, a Black sailor from Bermuda who had served in the Royal Navy during the war. In Liverpool, Wootton was set upon by a white mob and driven to jump into the water to save himself. As he struggled in the water, the mob threw stones at him, one of which struck his head, causing him to drown.
These events highlight the stark contrast between the sacrifices made by Black servicemen during the war and the treatment they received in its aftermath. Despite their contributions to the British war effort, Black people in Britain faced increased discrimination, violence, and economic hardship in the immediate post-war period.
Post-World War II: Increased Black Migration and Efforts to Curb It
World War II marked a shift in Britain's approach to Black soldiers. Faced with the might of Adolf Hitler's Nazi army, Britain had no choice but to allow Black people to fight against German soldiers. Twelve thousand West Indians served in the British army in Europe, while a much larger contingent of 372,000 Black soldiers was deployed in Africa.
In the aftermath of Hitler's defeat and the revelation of atrocities committed in the name of racial ideology, overt racism became less acceptable. However, in Britain, racial prejudice continued to persist in more subtle ways. Despite a massive postwar shortage of workers, the British government was reluctant to allow Black workers from the colonies into Britain.
Nevertheless, Black workers found their way to the UK. The arrival of the Empire Windrush – a ship carrying Jamaican immigrants – in London in 1948 marked the beginning of a significant wave of migration from the West Indies over the next decade. While only 1,000 to 2,000 West Indians entered Britain in 1948, by 1956 this number had peaked at 56,000. This migration was partly driven by a devastating hurricane that hit Jamaica in 1951, destroying many people's livelihoods and forcing them to seek better prospects abroad.
Unfortunately, these new migrants faced considerable discrimination in Britain. In 1958, racial violence erupted in Nottingham when white men in a bar objected to a Black man and a white woman sitting together. Similar clashes followed in the Notting Hill neighborhood of London, with white mobs attacking Black people and their homes. Despite Black people being largely the victims in these disturbances, politicians labeled the violence as "riots" and blamed Black migrants.
Politicians capitalized on these events to push for immigration controls. In 1962, Parliament passed the Commonwealth Immigrants Act, which curtailed immigration. Further restrictions followed in 1968 and 1971. Politicians and media figures often exaggerated the impact of immigration. For instance, in a 1978 interview, Margaret Thatcher, not yet prime minister, claimed that the British populace was "swamped" by immigrants, despite immigrants making up only 4 percent of the population at the time.
These political responses overlooked the long-standing relationship between Britain and its Black population, forged largely through the oppressions of slavery and colonialism. The lives and fates of Black people had been deeply tied to Britain for centuries, making them far from the "alien horde" sometimes portrayed in political rhetoric.
Final Thoughts
David Olusoga's "Black and British" presents a compelling argument for the centrality of people of African descent in British history. From the Roman Empire to the present day, Black people have been an integral part of the British story, though their influence has often been marginalized in mainstream historical narratives.
The book traces the complex and often painful relationship between Britain and its Black population through the eras of slavery, colonialism, and beyond. It highlights how Black Britons were not only victims of British dominance but also active participants who fought to end the horrors of the slave trade and defended Britain against its enemies.
Olusoga's work challenges readers to reconsider their understanding of British history and identity. By bringing to light the forgotten or overlooked stories of Black Britons, he demonstrates that the history of Britain cannot be fully understood without acknowledging the contributions and experiences of its Black population.
The book serves as a reminder of the importance of inclusive historical narratives. It encourages readers to be wary of biases in mainstream tellings of history and to dig deeper to discover the hidden stories of marginalized groups. By doing so, we often find that those who seem to be on the margins of history are, in fact, at its very heart.
In the context of contemporary debates about identity, immigration, and national belonging, "Black and British" provides valuable historical context. It reminds us that the presence of Black people in Britain is not a recent phenomenon but a long-standing reality that has shaped the nation in profound ways.
Ultimately, Olusoga's work is a call for a more nuanced and inclusive understanding of British history and identity. By acknowledging the full complexity of Britain's past, including its darker chapters, we can work towards a more just and equitable future for all British people, regardless of their racial or ethnic background.