Cannibalism Summary

How natural is cannibalism? More than you might think—it crosses species boundaries and is deeply tied to survival and environmental pressures.

1. Cannibalism: A Natural Yet Taboo Practice

Cannibalism, though widely condemned by humans, is a natural phenomenon that occurs across species. By definition, it involves one individual consuming all or part of another individual from the same species. Humans often view this behavior through a lens of prejudice, associating it with horror stories or extreme starvation scenarios. But in nature, it is often a survival strategy.

In the 1970s, ecologist Laurel Fox overturned the assumption that cannibalism is inherently unnatural. Her research showed that this behavior occurs in every major group of animals, from mammals to insects. Even herbivorous creatures like butterflies exhibit cannibalistic tendencies under certain conditions. Whether it's scavenging or consumption during reproduction, cannibalism is widespread.

Environmental factors play a large role in this behavior. Crowded conditions, lack of food, or environmental stress can lead to cannibalism. Despite its grim perception, cannibalism often functions as a grim but effective survival strategy in the natural world.

Examples

• Butterflies, often considered harmless herbivores, can exhibit cannibalism when food is scarce.
• Certain fish species consume their own eggs or young for nutrition during hard times.
• Captive environments, like poultry farms, can incite chickens to attack and eat their peers.

2. Evolutionary Advantages of Cannibalism

Cannibalism occasionally provides an evolutionary boost. When resources are scarce, young and defenseless individuals become prime nutritional sources. This might seem gruesome but can make evolutionary sense under certain conditions.

Gary Polis, an ecologist, found that infanticide is a widespread form of cannibalism. It ensures short-term nutrition while limiting competition for food among survivors. In species like fish, where offspring are abundant and vulnerable, consuming eggs or young is almost routine. For certain species, cannibalism also accelerates development. For instance, the flour beetle’s reproductive capacity increases when they consume members of their own species.

Intriguingly, sand tiger sharks exhibit cannibalism even before birth. Intrauterine cannibalism occurs when these shark embryos consume their weaker siblings in the womb. This strengthens the surviving fetuses and prepares them for life in a competitive environment.

Examples

• Flour beetles benefit reproductively from cannibalism, laying more eggs than non-cannibals.
• Fish systematically consume their own eggs as an energy source during food shortages.
• Sand tiger shark embryos start their survival battle in the womb by consuming their siblings.

3. Environmental Stress Fuels Cannibalism

Stressful environments often trigger cannibalistic behavior. This includes overcrowding and limited resources, which exacerbate aggressive tendencies. Animals in high-stress surroundings sometimes redirect their frustration into cannibalistic attacks.

Chickens in cramped spaces peck each other due to stress, sometimes leading to cannibalism. Similarly, pet hamsters in conditions that mimic captivity—such as tiny cages or noisy households—can cannibalize their offspring. Mammals, as a whole, engage less frequently in cannibalism due to a lower offspring count and extensive parental care. However, crowded conditions can override this inclination.

The chimpanzee, one of our closest evolutionary relatives, occasionally practices cannibalism. Researchers predict an increase in such behavior as human activities encroach on their habitats, creating greater competition for limited resources.

Examples

• Poultry farms often see stressed chickens turning cannibalistic in crowded environments.
• Hamsters housed in poor conditions may eat their newborns due to captivity stress.
• Chimpanzees battling habitat loss may begin to exhibit more cannibalistic patterns.

4. Modern Cannibal Practices Exist Today

Human cannibalism is not only a thing of past crises. Even in the modern world, cannibalism continues—sometimes as a choice rather than necessity. Notorious cases like Armin Meiwes in Germany, who partnered with a willing victim to engage in cannibalistic acts in 2001, stand out.

Beyond criminal cases, a surprising trend has emerged among some women: eating their own placenta. Often promoted as a health remedy, the placenta is consumed raw, cooked as jerky, or even turned into pills. Advocates claim benefits like nutritional replenishment, though scientific evidence remains scant. Even the author of the book, Bill Schutt, personally sampled placenta during his research and described its taste as strong and distinctive.

These modern instances of cannibalism demonstrate how it lingers as a point of curiosity and folklore in human culture, even if taboo.

Examples

• Armin Meiwes consumed a willing victim’s body parts over several months.
• Some mothers consume their placenta, believing it restores nutrients post-pregnancy.
• Famous cannibal Issei Sagawa described human flesh as tasting like raw tuna.

5. Storytelling Reinforces Cannibal Taboos

Cannibalism has long been used as the hallmark of evil in stories. Fairy tale authors like Charles Perrault and the Brothers Grimm introduced sinister cannibal characters like witches and wolves to drive fear into children and reinforce its taboo.

In Snow White, the evil queen consumes what she believes to be her stepdaughter’s organs—a gruesome act revealing her wickedness. Hansel and Gretel’s witch famously plots to devour the two siblings for her next meal. These grim tales shocked audiences and perpetuated associations of cannibalism with hideous morality.

Over centuries, this storytelling effectively transformed popular views on cannibalism into a symbol of barbarity and outrage. As explored in the book, these cultural undertones still shape modern horror stories and public discomfort.

Examples

• Snow White’s stepmother eats what she believes to be her stepdaughter’s heart.
• Hansel and Gretel encounter a cannibal witch who preys on children.
• Little Red Riding Hood unknowingly consumes her grandmother, killed by the wolf.

6. Disease Risks Make Cannibalism Dangerous

While cannibalism serves biological functions, its risks include disease transfer. Parasites and pathogens evolve to attack specific species, increasing the chance of transmission when consumed.

The Fore people of New Guinea experienced devastating consequences from consuming their dead as part of funerary traditions. Eating infected tissues led to widespread kuru, a neurological disease similar to mad cow disease. This tragedy shows how consuming one’s own kind increases the risk of fatal health consequences.

Even in nature, cannibalism raises risks of disease. Animals often avoid diseased individuals, but during famine, they might compromise this instinct to survive. Unfortunately, this exposes them to significant health issues.

Examples

• The Fore people’s custom of eating deceased relatives spread kuru, leading to near extinction.
• Cannibal animals are more susceptible to their species’ diseases.
• Pathogens like prions transferred during cannibalism have devastating neurological effects.

7. Cultural Taboos Rooted in Religion

Western aversion to cannibalism may stem from Christian beliefs that resurrection requires an intact body. Early Christian doctrines, like those explored by historian Reay Tannahill, placed high importance on bodily sanctity after death.

These religious beliefs intertwined with colonial propaganda during the Age of Exploration. To justify land takings, Europeans labeled native populations “savages” and exaggerated claims of cannibalism. Framing locals as barbaric helped validate European conquests, perpetuating a narrative that lingers in Western imagination today.

Examples

• Early Christians believed resurrection required a whole, uncorrupted body.
• Columbus reported exaggerated stories of native cannibals to justify colonial actions.
• The British used the term "savages" to demean native populations based on diet and behavior.

8. Cannibalism During Crisis Periods

From ancient Rome to twentieth-century Europe, famine-stricken societies have resorted to cannibalism. Times of war and extreme drought often pushed people to desperate measures, with historical records documenting these instances.

Sociologist Pitirim Sorokin’s analysis shows widespread cannibalism in periods of severe famine. Historic examples include the seventeenth-century European famines and drought-ravaged African regions during the last few decades.

As famine looms in drought-prone areas today, history points to a grim possibility: cannibalism might resurface as survival desperation grows.

Examples

• Europe experienced cannibalism 11 times between the years 793 and 1317 due to famine.
• Ancient civilizations, from Egypt to China, saw documented cases during mass starvation.
• Prolonged drought in Somalia has increased starvation risks in modern times.

9. Future Environmental Pressure May Revive Cannibalism

Cannibalism could resurge amid deteriorating global conditions. Growing deserts, political instability, and food insecurity push humans closer to historical extremes.

In regions like California and Texas, record-breaking droughts signal shifting climates. Meanwhile, increased desertification in Africa adds immense pressure to poor populations. History suggests that if these trends worsen, cannibalism could serve as humanity's last fallback in dystopian conditions.

Examples

• California's three-year drought (2012-2014) was the driest recorded in over 1,200 years.
• African countries like Somalia have faced repeated food crises caused by severe drought.
• Historical instances show famine as a frequent cause of cannibalism worldwide.

Takeaways

1. Recognize environmental stressors like overcrowding and food scarcity as drivers of cannibalistic tendencies across species, including humans.
2. Be aware of cultural and psychological biases framing cannibalism as unnatural—it plays an important evolutionary role in many contexts.
3. Work toward mitigating the environmental factors, like famine and drought, that pressure societies toward unthinkable choices.