In "China In Ten Words," author Yu Hua takes readers on a fascinating journey through modern Chinese history and culture using ten key words as a lens. This unique approach offers valuable insights into the profound transformation China has undergone in recent decades, from the tumultuous Cultural Revolution to the economic boom of the present day.
Yu Hua, born in 1960, has lived through some of the most significant changes in Chinese society. As a renowned novelist and essayist, he brings a keen eye and personal perspective to his analysis of these ten words, each of which carries deep cultural and historical significance. Through his exploration, readers gain a nuanced understanding of the complexities and contradictions that define contemporary China.
The ten words examined in the book are:
- People (Renmin)
- Leader (Lingxiu)
- Reading (Yuedu)
- Writing (Xiezuo)
- Lu Xun
- Revolution (Geming)
- Disparity (Chaju)
- Grassroots (Caogen)
- Copycat (Shanzhai)
- Bamboozle (Huyou)
By delving into these concepts, Yu Hua paints a vivid picture of China's recent past and present, offering readers a unique window into the country's collective psyche and the forces that have shaped its rapid development.
1. People (Renmin)
The concept of "the people" (renmin) was a cornerstone of Chinese society during Yu Hua's childhood in the 1960s. It was so central to the national identity that he learned to write the characters for "the people" before he could even write his own name. This emphasis on the collective over the individual was a key feature of Communist ideology and played a crucial role in shaping the social and political landscape of China during the Cultural Revolution.
During this period, the idea of "the people" was used to promote a vision of equality among all citizens, regardless of their occupation or social status. Workers, peasants, soldiers, and intellectuals were all considered part of this collective identity. However, this concept was also used to reinforce the cult of personality surrounding Mao Zedong, with popular slogans proclaiming that "Chairman Mao is the people, and the people are Chairman Mao."
The importance of "the people" as a unifying concept remained strong throughout much of the latter half of the 20th century. However, its significance began to wane following the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989. This watershed moment marked a turning point in how Chinese citizens viewed themselves and their relationship to the state.
Yu Hua vividly describes the atmosphere in Beijing during the protests, painting a picture of a city transformed. Police officers disappeared from the streets, and a sense of common purpose prevailed, creating an almost festive atmosphere. Even petty criminals temporarily abandoned their illegal activities to join the demonstrators, highlighting the powerful unifying effect of the protests.
However, this period of unity and hope was brutally cut short when the army entered Tiananmen Square in early June, violently dispersing the crowds and putting an end to the demonstrations. The aftermath of this crackdown was initially broadcast on state television, with coverage celebrating the capture of prominent student leaders. But then, suddenly and without explanation, all mention of the incident ceased, and it became a taboo subject in public discourse.
In the years following the Tiananmen Square protests, the concept of "the people" as a unified whole began to lose its prominence in Chinese society. Instead, citizens increasingly found themselves categorized into smaller, more specific groups based on factors such as occupation, economic status, or even consumer preferences. Today, it's more common for Chinese individuals to identify themselves as migrants, stockholders, or fans of particular celebrities rather than as members of a broader collective.
This shift reflects the profound changes that have occurred in Chinese society over the past few decades. As the country has moved away from strict Communist ideology and embraced a more market-oriented economy, the emphasis on collective identity has given way to a greater focus on individual achievement and personal interests. While the concept of "the people" hasn't disappeared entirely, its meaning and significance have evolved considerably since Yu Hua's childhood.
The transformation of this key concept provides valuable insight into the changing nature of Chinese society and the complex relationship between citizens and the state. It highlights the tension between collective identity and individual aspirations that continues to shape modern China, as the country grapples with the legacy of its revolutionary past and the realities of its rapidly developing present.
2. Leader (Lingxiu)
The concept of "leader" (lingxiu) has undergone significant changes in China since the era of Mao Zedong. Yu Hua uses this word to explore the evolving nature of political leadership and public perception of authority in Chinese society.
During Mao's reign, the idea of a leader was closely tied to his persona and the cult of personality that surrounded him. Mao embodied the concept of lingxiu, presenting himself as a figure who was both powerful and close to the people. Yu Hua illustrates this with an anecdote about Mao's unexpected participation in a mass swimming event in Wuhan in 1966. At 72 years old, Mao joined swimmers in the cold waters of the Yangtze River, later posing for a photograph in his swimming trunks. This event generated immense public admiration, with people praising Mao's health and athleticism.
Mao's approach to leadership involved maintaining a careful balance between authority and accessibility. He often used "big-character posters" – large, eye-catching political statements pasted on walls and other surfaces – to communicate directly with the people. When criticisms of state officials appeared on these posters, Mao would sometimes side with the people, issuing his own posters criticizing the same officials. This strategy reinforced his image as a leader who was in touch with the concerns of ordinary citizens.
However, the concept of lingxiu underwent a dramatic transformation following Mao's death in 1976. The political landscape in China shifted from rule by a single, charismatic leader to governance by committee. This change is visually represented in how political figures present themselves at news conferences. Where once Mao would be the sole figure smiling and waving, now all senior members of the Chinese Communist Party wave in unison, symbolizing the new collective leadership style.
This shift has had a profound impact on the meaning and significance of the word "leader" in contemporary China. Today, the term is more likely to be used to describe individuals in less prominent roles, such as youth leaders, real estate tycoons, or even beauty pageant winners. The grand, all-encompassing concept of a national leader that Mao represented has been diluted and dispersed across various sectors of society.
Despite these changes, Yu Hua notes that there is still a strong appetite among many Chinese people for a strong, Mao-like leader. He cites a spoof text that circulated in 2009, claiming that Mao had been successfully cloned and was preparing to tackle corruption in the country. The fact that many people found this idea appealing suggests a lingering nostalgia for the type of leadership Mao represented.
This yearning for strong leadership is further evidenced by recent polls indicating that a significant majority of Chinese citizens – as high as 85 percent – believe that the return of a Mao-like figure would be beneficial for the country. This sentiment reflects a complex relationship with the past and a desire for decisive leadership in the face of contemporary challenges.
The evolution of the concept of lingxiu in China offers valuable insights into the changing nature of political authority and public expectations of leadership. It highlights the tension between the collective leadership model that has prevailed in recent decades and the persistent appeal of a strong, charismatic individual leader.
This transformation also reflects broader changes in Chinese society, as the country has moved from the revolutionary fervor of the Mao era to a more pragmatic, economically-focused approach to governance. The changing meaning of "leader" encapsulates the ongoing negotiation between China's communist past and its current reality as a global economic powerhouse.
Understanding these shifts in the concept of leadership is crucial for grasping the complexities of modern Chinese politics and society. It reveals the intricate balance between collective governance and individual authority, tradition and modernity, that continues to shape China's political landscape.
3. Reading (Yuedu)
The concept of "reading" (yuedu) serves as a powerful lens through which Yu Hua examines the dramatic changes in Chinese society, particularly in relation to access to information and the role of literature. Through his personal experiences, Yu Hua traces the evolution of reading culture in China across four distinct periods, each reflecting the broader social and political context of the time.
During the early years of the Cultural Revolution, books were extremely scarce. The Communist Party had labeled many texts as "poisonous weeds" and had them destroyed. In this period, the only reading material available in most homes was the Selected Works of Chairman Mao and his Quotations, commonly known as the Little Red Book. Despite the dry and repetitive nature of these texts, Yu Hua found ways to engage with them, often focusing on the biographical footnotes to glean interesting details about historical figures.
As Yu Hua entered his school years, a clandestine reading culture began to emerge. A few tattered copies of banned books circulated among students, highly prized for their rarity and forbidden nature. Yu Hua recalls obtaining a copy of Alexandre Dumas' "La Dame aux Camélias" and frantically copying it out by hand before he had to return it. This practice of hand-copying books was common among students eager for new reading material, though it often resulted in illegible texts due to poor handwriting.
In the absence of traditional books, young people like Yu Hua found creative ways to satisfy their hunger for stories. They would scrutinize the text on big-character posters, using their imagination to construct narratives from the sparse information provided. Yu Hua describes how he would scan these posters for any hint of scandal or intrigue, particularly focusing on condemnations of adulterous affairs, which he would then share with his friends as exciting stories.
The end of the Cultural Revolution in 1976 marked a significant turning point in China's reading culture. Yu Hua vividly describes the excitement surrounding the arrival of the first shipment of books at his local bookstore in 1977. The demand was so high that the shop had to implement a rationing system, limiting customers to two books each and requiring them to present a book token. People queued through the night for a chance to purchase these precious volumes, highlighting the pent-up desire for reading material after years of scarcity.
This transition period was characterized by a mix of enthusiasm and frustration. While the availability of books was increasing, it was still limited, and many people left the bookstore empty-handed. However, this situation was short-lived, as subsequent shipments arrived and the flood of new books began in earnest.
The evolution of reading culture in China, as described by Yu Hua, reflects the broader changes in Chinese society during this period. The scarcity of books during the Cultural Revolution represents the tight control over information and ideas that characterized that era. The clandestine circulation of banned books among students highlights the resilience of intellectual curiosity even in the face of oppression.
The creative ways in which people like Yu Hua found material to read – from scrutinizing footnotes to imagining stories from propaganda posters – demonstrates the human need for narrative and information, even in the most restrictive environments. This adaptability and resourcefulness would serve as a foundation for the explosion of reading culture that followed the end of the Cultural Revolution.
The frenzy surrounding the arrival of new books in 1977 marks a pivotal moment in Chinese cultural history. It symbolizes the end of an era of intellectual deprivation and the beginning of a new period of openness and access to diverse ideas. This transition would have profound implications for Chinese society, contributing to the rapid changes that would unfold in the following decades.
Yu Hua's personal journey with reading, from the constraints of the Cultural Revolution to the excitement of newly available books, mirrors the experiences of many in his generation. It underscores the transformative power of literature and the written word, not just for individuals but for society as a whole.
The changing nature of reading in China, as explored through Yu Hua's experiences, provides valuable insights into the country's cultural and intellectual development. It highlights the resilience of the human spirit in the face of oppression and the hunger for knowledge and stories that persists even in the most challenging circumstances. As China continues to evolve, the concept of yuedu remains central to understanding the country's past, present, and future.
4. Writing (Xiezuo)
The concept of "writing" (xiezuo) plays a crucial role in Yu Hua's narrative, serving as a window into the changing political and cultural landscape of China. Through his personal experiences, Yu Hua illustrates how the act of writing has been deeply intertwined with political movements, social change, and individual aspiration in modern Chinese history.
Yu Hua's journey as a writer began during the Cultural Revolution, a period when writing was heavily politicized and controlled. He describes how he, like many young people at the time, became a "red pen" – an author who aligned themselves with the political forces driving the revolution forward. This experience highlights the way in which writing was often used as a tool for political expression and indoctrination during this tumultuous period.
One of Yu Hua's earliest forays into writing was the production of big-character posters criticizing his school's faculty. This activity, which was praised by the local propaganda team, demonstrates how writing was used to challenge authority and upend traditional hierarchies during the Cultural Revolution. The fact that such actions were encouraged shows the complex and often contradictory nature of power dynamics during this period.
Yu Hua's evolution as a writer continued after he left school and began working as a dentist. Despite his day job, his true passion lay in writing, and he saw it as a potential path to a more relaxed and fulfilling lifestyle. This aspiration reflects the changing perceptions of writers and artists in Chinese society, as creative professions began to be seen as desirable alternatives to more traditional careers.
The author's persistence in pursuing his writing ambitions paid off when he was finally published in the Beijing Literature magazine in 1983. This breakthrough marked a significant turning point in his life, allowing him to transition from dentistry to a position at the Cultural Center in his hometown. Yu Hua's journey from amateur writer to published author illustrates the growing opportunities for creative expression in post-Cultural Revolution China.
However, Yu Hua's early writing was deeply influenced by the violence he had witnessed during his youth. He describes how his experiences, such as seeing bloody medical procedures in his father's surgery and witnessing executions on a local beach, informed his graphic and often disturbing early works. This connection between personal experience and artistic expression highlights the profound impact that the turbulent events of the Cultural Revolution had on the psyche of an entire generation.
The toll that writing about such violent themes took on Yu Hua is evident in his description of the nightmares he experienced. His decision to move away from these themes to preserve his mental health demonstrates the complex relationship between art and personal well-being, as well as the lasting psychological impact of the Cultural Revolution on those who lived through it.
Yu Hua's experiences with writing provide valuable insights into the changing role of literature and artistic expression in Chinese society. During the Cultural Revolution, writing was often a political act, used to reinforce ideological messages or challenge existing power structures. In the years that followed, it became a means of personal expression and a potential career path, reflecting the gradual opening up of Chinese society.
The evolution of Yu Hua's writing style and subject matter – from politically charged posters to violent short stories and eventually to more nuanced works – mirrors the broader changes in Chinese literature during this period. As censorship relaxed and new ideas began to circulate, writers like Yu Hua were able to explore a wider range of themes and styles.
However, the lingering influence of the Cultural Revolution on Yu Hua's early works serves as a reminder of the long-lasting impact of political turmoil on artistic expression. The violence and upheaval of that period continued to shape the themes and perspectives of many Chinese writers long after the revolution had ended.
Yu Hua's journey as a writer also highlights the changing status of authors in Chinese society. The transition from seeing writing as a political tool to viewing it as a respected profession reflects broader shifts in social values and economic opportunities in the post-Mao era.
The concept of xiezuo, as explored through Yu Hua's experiences, encapsulates many of the tensions and transformations that have characterized modern Chinese history. It represents the struggle between political control and creative freedom, the processing of traumatic historical events through art, and the evolving role of the writer in Chinese society. As such, it provides a unique and personal perspective on China's cultural and social development over the past several decades.
5. Lu Xun
The exploration of Lu Xun, one of China's most renowned 20th-century writers, offers a fascinating glimpse into the changing perceptions of literature and intellectual figures in modern Chinese history. Yu Hua's personal journey with Lu Xun's work mirrors the broader shifts in how this influential author has been viewed and interpreted over time.
During Yu Hua's childhood, which coincided with the Cultural Revolution, Lu Xun occupied a unique and elevated position in Chinese culture. Along with Mao Zedong, Lu Xun was one of the few writers that children of that era were familiar with. This limited literary landscape reflects the tight control over information and cultural production during the Cultural Revolution.
Lu Xun's prominence during this period was largely due to Mao Zedong's admiration for his work. Mao, who died in 1976, had effectively canonized Lu Xun (who had died in 1936) as a revolutionary hero. The Communist Party found Lu Xun's fierce criticism of early 20th-century Chinese society useful in their efforts to discredit old institutions and practices. As a result, Lu Xun's words carried immense weight, second only to Mao's own pronouncements in terms of their authority.
Yu Hua recalls how, during his school days, invoking Lu Xun was often enough to win any argument. This anecdote illustrates the almost mythical status that Lu Xun had attained, to the point where his supposed words were accepted without question, even when misattributed or fabricated. This unquestioning acceptance of authority figures was a characteristic feature of the Cultural Revolution period.
However, Yu Hua's relationship with Lu Xun's work was complex. Despite Lu Xun's elevated status, Yu Hua admits that he didn't truly appreciate the author's work until much later in life. This was partly due to the forced reading of Lu Xun's essays and stories in school, which led to a sense of resentment rather than appreciation. Yu Hua's experience highlights the potential pitfalls of using literature as a tool for ideological education, as it can sometimes backfire and create aversion rather than admiration.
The end of the Cultural Revolution brought about a significant shift in how Lu Xun was perceived. As Chinese society began to open up and become more critical of its recent past, Lu Xun's work also came under scrutiny. Many began to question his literary merit, arguing that he had been overrated. This reversal of opinion reflects the broader reassessment of cultural and political figures that took place in the post-Mao era.
Yu Hua's own reassessment of Lu Xun came much later, in 1996, when he was asked for advice on adapting Lu Xun's stories for film. Feeling obligated to reread the works, Yu Hua approached them with fresh eyes and a more mature perspective. To his surprise, he found himself in awe of Lu Xun's style and came to believe that the author truly deserved his reputation. This experience underscores the importance of context and personal growth in literary appreciation.
Yu Hua's journey with Lu Xun's work provides valuable insights into the changing role of literature in Chinese society. During the Cultural Revolution, Lu Xun's writings were used as a political tool, their interpretation tightly controlled to support the prevailing ideology. In the years that followed, as Chinese society became more open to criticism and diverse viewpoints, Lu Xun's work was reevaluated, sometimes harshly.
The fact that Yu Hua, a respected author himself, initially disliked Lu Xun's work but later came to appreciate it, speaks to the complex relationship between politics and literature in China. It suggests that the politicization of literature can sometimes obscure its true value, and that a more nuanced understanding often comes with time and personal growth.
Moreover, the changing perceptions of Lu Xun reflect broader shifts in Chinese intellectual culture. The movement from unquestioning acceptance during the Cultural Revolution to critical reassessment in the following years demonstrates the gradual opening up of Chinese society and the increasing willingness to challenge established narratives.
Yu Hua's ultimate appreciation of Lu Xun's work also highlights the enduring power of great literature. Despite the changing political and social contexts, Lu Xun's keen observations of Chinese society and his unique literary style continue to resonate with readers who approach his work with an open mind.
The story of Lu Xun, as seen through Yu Hua's eyes, encapsulates many of the tensions and transformations in modern Chinese cultural history. It illustrates the complex interplay between politics and art, the evolving nature of literary criticism, and the personal journey of understanding that often accompanies the reading of classic literature. As such, it provides a unique lens through which to view China's intellectual and cultural development over the past century.
6. Revolution (Geming)
The concept of "revolution" (geming) has been a defining feature of modern Chinese history, shaping the country's political, social, and economic landscape. Yu Hua's exploration of this term provides valuable insights into the continuities between China's revolutionary past and its current rapid development.
Yu Hua challenges the Western notion that links economic growth with political democracy by suggesting that China's recent experiences can be understood as part of a revolutionary tradition dating back to the mid-20th century. This tradition, he argues, is characterized by risk-taking, exaggeration, and instability – elements that have been present in both China's political revolutions and its economic reforms.
The author draws parallels between the "Great Leap Forward" of the late 1950s and early 1960s and contemporary economic policies. The Great Leap Forward was an ambitious attempt to rapidly industrialize China while collectivizing agriculture. It was marked by grandiose claims and unrealistic expectations. Provincial officials made exaggerated reports about food production and showcased communal dining halls where peasants supposedly feasted on abundant harvests. However, these claims were far from reality. The policy ultimately failed, leading to a devastating famine that claimed millions of lives.
Yu Hua sees similar patterns of exaggeration and disconnect from reality in modern China's economic development. He points to officials who boast about the construction of massive infrastructure projects like ports and highways that serve non-existent demand. While these projects may appear impressive on paper, they often mask underlying problems and inefficiencies.
The author also highlights how apparent successes can often conceal new challenges. For instance, the rapid expansion of universities in China led to a fivefold increase in student enrollment between 1998 and 2006. While this might seem like a positive development, it has resulted in significant problems. Many universities are struggling financially, and over a million graduates each year are unable to find employment. This situation echoes the unintended consequences of past revolutionary policies.
Yu Hua draws another parallel between the Cultural Revolution and contemporary China in the realm of bureaucratic infighting. During the Cultural Revolution, there were intense struggles over official seals, which were necessary to validate documents and thus represented significant power. The author notes that similar conflicts continue today, citing a 2008 incident where a party secretary overthrew a board chairman by hiring thugs to ransack his office and steal his governmental seal.
These examples illustrate how the spirit of geming continues to shape modern China. While the country's economic growth has been impressive, Yu Hua suggests that it has been built on unstable foundations – a political culture defined by its revolutionary instability.
The author's analysis provides a nuanced understanding of China's development that goes beyond simple economic metrics. By linking current practices to historical revolutionary movements, Yu Hua suggests that China's rapid growth is not a complete break from its past, but rather a continuation of certain patterns of behavior and thinking.
This perspective challenges simplistic narratives about China's rise. Instead of seeing the country's economic reforms as a straightforward march towards modernization, Yu Hua presents a more complex picture. He suggests that many of the traits that characterized China's revolutionary periods – risk-taking, exaggeration, and instability – continue to play a significant role in shaping the country's development.
Moreover, Yu Hua's analysis highlights the potential risks inherent in China's current model of development. Just as past revolutionary movements often led to unintended and sometimes disastrous consequences, the author implies that China's current trajectory may also harbor hidden dangers. The emphasis on rapid growth and impressive statistics, reminiscent of earlier revolutionary campaigns, may be masking underlying problems and creating new challenges for the future.
At the same time, Yu Hua's exploration of geming also underscores the resilience and adaptability of Chinese society. The ability to channel revolutionary energy into economic development, even if in a sometimes chaotic and unpredictable manner, speaks to the country's capacity for dramatic transformation.
In conclusion, Yu Hua's examination of "revolution" provides a unique lens through which to understand modern China. By drawing connections between historical revolutionary movements and contemporary economic policies, he offers a thought-provoking perspective on the country's development. This analysis encourages readers to look beyond surface-level changes and consider the deeper continuities that shape China's ongoing evolution.
7. Disparity (Chaju)
The concept of "disparity" (chaju) is central to understanding the complex social and economic landscape of contemporary China. Yu Hua uses this term to explore the growing gap between the rich and poor, a phenomenon that has become increasingly pronounced as China has embraced market reforms and rapid economic growth.
Yu Hua illustrates the stark nature of this disparity with a poignant anecdote about a film crew organizing a soccer match for children in a poor village during the 2006 World Cup. The children, who had never seen or played soccer before, misunderstood the process of cleaning the ball as an integral part of the game. This story serves as a powerful metaphor for the vast differences in experiences and opportunities between urban and rural China, and between the wealthy and the poor.
The author provides concrete statistics to underscore the extent of this disparity. He notes that in 2010, while China was on the verge of becoming the world's second-largest economy, it ranked only hundredth in terms of per capita income. This discrepancy highlights the uneven distribution of wealth that has accompanied China's economic rise. Yu Hua also points out the significant gap between rural and urban incomes, with a ratio of 1:3, further emphasizing the geographical aspect of economic inequality in China.
Yu Hua argues that this growing disparity has led to increasing desperation among those left behind by China's economic boom. He draws parallels between the present day and his experiences during the Cultural Revolution. In both periods, people resorted to illegal activities to make ends meet. During the Cultural Revolution, some individuals sold excess food coupons, an act considered "counter-revolutionary" by the state. Today, unemployed people often risk arrest by selling goods without permits.
However, Yu Hua notes a crucial difference between these two periods. While progress towards greater equality under Mao was slow, the gap between rich and poor was significantly smaller than it is in contemporary China. The author suggests that the current level of disparity is so extreme that many people feel they have nothing left to lose, leading to more desperate and sometimes violent actions.
This increasing disparity has profound implications for Chinese society. It has led to social tension and unrest, with those left behind by the economic boom feeling increasingly marginalized and frustrated. The author's observations suggest that this widening gap threatens social stability and cohesion, potentially undermining the very economic progress that has created it.
Moreover, Yu Hua's analysis implies that the current situation in China challenges the narrative of uniform progress and development often presented by official sources. While China's economic growth has indeed been remarkable, the benefits of this growth have not been evenly distributed. This uneven development raises questions about the sustainability and long-term consequences of China's current economic model.
The author's comparison between the Mao era and the present day is particularly telling. While the Mao period was characterized by widespread poverty, there was at least a sense of shared struggle and relative equality. In contrast, contemporary China's stark disparities have created a society of haves and have-nots, with vastly different lived experiences and opportunities.
Yu Hua's exploration of chaju also touches on the changing nature of social mobility in China. While the economic reforms of the past few decades have created opportunities for some to amass significant wealth, they have also made it increasingly difficult for others to improve their economic situation. This reduced social mobility can lead to a sense of hopelessness and frustration among those at the bottom of the economic ladder.
The concept of disparity, as presented by Yu Hua, serves as a powerful critique of China's development model. It suggests that while the country has made tremendous strides in terms of overall economic growth, it has done so at the cost of creating a deeply unequal society. This inequality, the author implies, poses significant challenges for China's future development and social stability.
In conclusion, Yu Hua's examination of chaju provides a nuanced and critical perspective on China's economic miracle. By highlighting the growing disparities within Chinese society, he encourages readers to look beyond headline economic figures and consider the human cost of rapid development. This analysis raises important questions about the nature of progress and the challenges China faces as it continues to navigate its path of modernization and growth.
8. Grassroots (Caogen)
The concept of "grassroots" (caogen) in modern China, as explored by Yu Hua, offers a fascinating insight into the changing dynamics of social mobility and entrepreneurship in the country. Originally referring to the roots of grass plants, the term has evolved to describe ordinary people at the lowest levels of social structures who manage to climb the social ladder through their own efforts.
Yu Hua provides several vivid examples of caogen success stories. He mentions "blood chiefs" who have become wealthy by buying blood from poor peasants and selling it to hospitals and private clients. Another example is the "garbage king" who built a fortune by purchasing trash from street-sorters and reselling it to factories. These rags-to-riches tales also include "button kings" and "sock kings" who have made their fortunes in niche manufacturing sectors.
These stories highlight the opportunities for social mobility that have emerged in China's rapidly developing economy. They demonstrate how individuals from humble backgrounds have been able to identify and exploit gaps in the market, often in unconventional or overlooked areas, to achieve significant wealth and status.
However, Yu Hua is quick to point out that this upward mobility is often precarious. He notes that between 2000 and 2010, 49 self-made tycoons fell from grace, losing everything due to various factors including questionable financial dealings, corruption, or illegitimate gains. This observation underscores the volatile nature of success in China's fast-paced and sometimes unpredictable economic environment.
Interestingly, Yu Hua draws parallels between these modern caogen success stories and similar phenomena during the Cultural Revolution. He cites the example of Wang Hongwen, who rose from being a security guard at a textile mill in 1966 to become the third most powerful figure in the Communist Party by 1973, behind only Mao Zedong and Zhou Enlai. However, Wang's meteoric rise was followed by an equally dramatic fall from grace in 1976, when he was imprisoned for "organizing and leading a counter-revolutionary clique."
This comparison between the Cultural Revolution era and contemporary China reveals a fascinating continuity in Chinese society. In both periods, there have been opportunities for individuals from humble backgrounds to rise to positions of significant power or wealth. However, in both cases, these rises have often been followed by dramatic falls.
Yu Hua's analysis suggests that this pattern of rapid rise and fall is deeply ingrained in Chinese political and economic culture. He uses the Chinese idiom that politics is "like flipping pancakes" to illustrate how quickly fortunes can change. This instability, he argues, is a feature of both China's revolutionary past and its current economic boom.
The author's exploration of caogen also sheds light on the changing nature of power in China. During the Cultural Revolution, the redistribution of power was primarily political, with individuals rising through party ranks. In contemporary China, the redistribution is primarily economic, with entrepreneurs amassing wealth and influence through business success.
However, Yu Hua implies that there are similarities in how this power is wielded and how precarious it can be. Just as political power during the Cultural Revolution could be swiftly taken away, economic success in modern China can be fleeting, subject to market forces, changing government policies, or accusations of corruption.
This analysis provides valuable insights into the nature of social mobility and success in China. It suggests that while there are indeed opportunities for dramatic upward movement, these opportunities come with significant risks. The volatility of success, whether in the political sphere of the past or the economic sphere of the present, remains a constant feature of Chinese society.
Moreover, Yu Hua's exploration of caogen raises important questions about the sustainability of China's current economic model. While the ability of individuals to rise from humble beginnings to great wealth is often celebrated as a sign of economic dynamism, the frequency with which these success stories end in dramatic downfalls suggests underlying instabilities in the system.
The concept of caogen, as presented by Yu Hua, also offers a unique perspective on the continuities between China's revolutionary past and its market-oriented present. Despite the vast differences between these two periods, the author identifies similar patterns of rapid social mobility and instability, suggesting that certain aspects of Chinese society have remained constant even as the country has undergone dramatic changes.
In conclusion, Yu Hua's examination of caogen provides a nuanced understanding of social mobility in modern China. By drawing parallels between the past and present, he encourages readers to look beyond simple narratives of economic success and consider the complex and often precarious nature of upward mobility in Chinese society. This analysis adds depth to our understanding of China's development and the challenges it faces as it continues to navigate rapid social and economic change.
9. Copycat (Shanzhai)
The concept of "copycat" (shanzhai) in modern China, as explored by Yu Hua, provides a fascinating insight into the country's approach to innovation, intellectual property, and economic development. Originally used to describe knock-off cell phones, the term has evolved to encompass a wide range of imitation products and practices that have become a significant feature of China's economic landscape.
Yu Hua begins his exploration of shanzhai with a personal anecdote from his time as a dentist. He admits that he had no formal medical training and learned on the job, taking cues from his more experienced colleagues. This experience leads him to describe himself as a "copycat dentist," illustrating how the concept of shanzhai extends beyond products to include professions and practices.
The author notes that shanzhai is not viewed as negatively in China as its English translation might suggest. Instead, it's often seen as a justification for fake and pirated products, reflecting a cultural acceptance of imitation as a form of innovation or necessary economic activity. This acceptance is demonstrated through Yu Hua's encounters with counterfeit versions of his own books and fake interviews attributed to him. In both cases, when confronted, the perpetrators simply shrugged off the deception as "copycat" behavior.
Yu Hua traces the roots of this acceptance back to the Cultural Revolution, drawing an interesting parallel between past political movements and current economic practices. He points to Mao Zedong's 1966 proclamation that "to rebel is justified" as a catalyst for widespread upheaval and the redistribution of power. During this period, many official committees and organizations were replaced by "copycat