Introduction
In "Civilization: The West and the Rest," historian Niall Ferguson explores the remarkable rise of Western civilization over the past five centuries. He examines how a handful of nations in Western Europe and North America managed to transform themselves from relative backwaters into global superpowers, dominating much of the world economically, politically, and culturally.
Ferguson argues that this dramatic shift in global power wasn't due to geography, natural resources, or mere chance. Instead, he proposes that Western civilization developed six crucial "killer applications" or institutions that propelled it to worldwide dominance. These "apps" gave the West a competitive edge over other civilizations and allowed it to spread its influence across the globe.
This book takes readers on a journey through history, examining how these killer apps emerged and evolved over time. It also looks at how other civilizations have attempted to adopt these Western innovations and what the future might hold for Western dominance in an increasingly globalized world.
The Great Divergence: From Backwater to World Power
At the dawn of the 15th century, an observant traveler would have been far more impressed by the great civilizations of the East than by the relatively primitive societies of Western Europe. China, for instance, was capable of mobilizing vast workforces to construct magnificent architectural wonders like the Forbidden City. Meanwhile, Europe was struggling with poor sanitation, constant warfare, and general backwardness.
Yet, in a remarkable turn of events, the following centuries saw Western nations rise from this position of relative weakness to become the dominant global powers. By 1900, Western empires controlled nearly two-thirds of the world's land area and population, as well as a staggering 79% of global economic output.
This transformation was evident in many spheres beyond just territorial control:
- Religion: Western Christianity spread far beyond its original boundaries.
- Science: Western scientific principles became the global standard.
- Economics: Economic theories from thinkers like Adam Smith, John Maynard Keynes, and Karl Marx shaped global debates.
- Fashion: Western styles of dress became the norm in many parts of the world.
Perhaps most striking was the change in relative living standards. By 1990, the average American was 73 times wealthier than the average Chinese person – a complete reversal of their positions five centuries earlier.
This dramatic shift in global power dynamics, often referred to as the "Great Divergence," is the central focus of Ferguson's book. He seeks to explain how and why this transformation occurred, and what it means for the future of global civilization.
The Six Killer Apps of Western Civilization
Ferguson argues that the key to understanding Western dominance lies in six crucial institutional developments, which he likens to "killer applications" or "apps" in modern computer terminology. These apps are:
- Competition
- Science
- Property Rights
- Medicine
- Consumer Society
- Work Ethic
Each of these developments emerged at different times and in different parts of the West, but together they created a potent combination that allowed Western civilization to outpace its rivals. Let's examine each of these killer apps in detail.
Competition: The Engine of Progress
One of the most crucial factors in the West's rise to power was the spirit of ruthless competition that developed in Europe. This competitive drive was born out of the continent's unique geography and political landscape.
Unlike China, which was unified under a single imperial government, Europe was a patchwork of rival states constantly vying for supremacy. Between 1500 and 1799, major European powers like Spain, England, and France were at war more often than they were at peace. Spain, for example, was engaged in conflicts with foreign enemies a staggering 81% of the time during this period.
While this constant warfare brought immense suffering to the populations caught in the crossfire, it also had some unexpected benefits:
Military Innovation: The need to gain an edge over rivals drove rapid advancements in military technology and strategy.
Financial Innovation: To fund their wars, European states developed sophisticated financial institutions like bond markets, public companies, and banks.
Social Mobility: The competitive spirit permeated society, with different social groups constantly jockeying for power and influence.
Overseas Expansion: European states sought new markets, trade routes, and resources abroad to gain advantages over their rivals.
This competitive environment stood in stark contrast to the more centralized and hierarchical societies of the East. In China, for example, the lack of external competitors and internal social mobility led to stagnation and inefficiency.
The competitive spirit drove European nations to explore, innovate, and expand their influence around the globe. When they encountered other civilizations, their military strength and economic drive allowed them to dominate, even when facing much larger societies. This ruthless competitiveness became a crucial engine of Western progress and power.
Science: The Power of Rational Inquiry
The scientific revolution that began in 17th century Europe marked another crucial turning point in the rise of Western civilization. This period saw the birth of modern scientific disciplines like biology, mathematics, and astronomy, driven almost entirely by European scholars.
Several factors contributed to this scientific awakening:
The Protestant Reformation: By encouraging individuals to read and interpret the Bible for themselves, Protestantism promoted literacy and critical thinking.
The Printing Press: This revolutionary technology allowed ideas to be easily recorded and disseminated.
Patronage: Many Western rulers recognized the potential benefits of scientific advancement and became patrons of scholars and inventors.
The embrace of rational, scientific thinking had far-reaching consequences:
Technological Advancements: Scientific discoveries led to innovations in various fields, from agriculture to manufacturing.
Military Superiority: Scientific principles were applied to warfare, resulting in more effective weapons and strategies.
Cultural Shift: The emphasis on rationalism and empirical evidence began to challenge traditional religious and superstitious beliefs.
A prime example of a ruler who embraced these new scientific ideals was Frederick the Great of Prussia. He fostered a society based on rationalism rather than religious superstition and applied scientific theories to military strategy, creating one of the most formidable armies of his time.
In contrast, many non-Western societies failed to embrace scientific thinking. The Ottoman Empire, for instance, suppressed scientific inquiry and restricted the use of the printing press, effectively stunting its intellectual and technological growth. While Prussian artillery became feared across Europe, Ottoman forces were still using outdated stone cannonballs.
The development and application of scientific principles gave the West a crucial advantage, allowing it to innovate faster and more effectively than its rivals.
Property Rights: The Foundation of Representative Government
The colonization of the Americas provided a fascinating natural experiment in political and social organization. The British colonies in North America and the Spanish colonies in Central and South America developed two radically different systems of governance, with dramatically different outcomes.
In the British colonies, particularly in North America, a unique system emerged based on widespread property ownership and political representation:
Land Distribution: Even poor settlers were given property, creating a large class of landowners.
Voting Rights: Property ownership was linked to voting rights, giving a significant portion of the population a stake in governance.
Representative Government: Following the ideas of philosophers like John Locke, the colonies developed systems where property owners could participate in government.
Rule of Law: This system helped establish a strong tradition of constitutional government and the rule of law.
These principles formed the basis of the United States Constitution and helped create a stable, democratic society that would eventually become a global superpower.
In contrast, the Spanish colonies developed very differently:
Land Ownership: The Spanish Crown retained ownership of colonial lands, which were governed by a small elite.
Political Exclusion: The majority of the population, including native inhabitants, had no political power despite their economic importance.
Lack of Democratic Tradition: Without experience in representative government, these colonies struggled with instability after gaining independence.
The consequences of these different systems became clear over time. While the United States grew into a stable democracy and economic powerhouse, many Latin American countries faced centuries of political instability, dictatorships, and economic struggles following independence.
This stark contrast demonstrates the power of property rights and representative government as a "killer app" of Western civilization. By giving a broad swath of the population a stake in the system and a voice in governance, these principles created more stable, prosperous, and innovative societies.
Medicine: Conquering Disease and Extending Life
Before the development of modern medicine, life was often short and brutal across the globe. Diseases like plague and smallpox ravaged populations, and poor sanitation contributed to frequent epidemics. The Black Death alone had wiped out nearly half of Europe's population in the 14th century.
However, starting in the 18th century, life expectancy in Europe began to rise dramatically. This improvement was driven by several factors:
Public Health: Improved sanitation and hygiene practices reduced the spread of disease.
Scientific Understanding: Advances in biology and chemistry led to a better understanding of how diseases spread and how the human body functions.
Medical Innovations: New treatments and technologies, such as vaccinations, began to emerge.
By the 20th century, diseases that had plagued Europe for centuries, like typhoid, were nearly eradicated in the West. This dramatic improvement in health and life expectancy gave Western nations a significant advantage over other civilizations.
The development of modern medicine also played a crucial role in Western imperial expansion:
Tropical Medicine: As Western powers sought to colonize tropical regions, they had to contend with diseases like malaria. This led to intensive research and medical advancements.
Colonial Laboratories: Many colonies became de facto laboratories where Western doctors could study tropical diseases and develop new treatments.
Improved Colonial Management: As medical knowledge advanced, Western powers could push deeper into tropical regions, allowing for greater resource exploitation and control.
Importantly, these medical advancements didn't just benefit Western colonists. Many colonial powers, like France, made it a policy to extend medical care to their colonial subjects. This led to significant improvements in life expectancy and overall health in colonized regions.
In fact, life expectancy in many parts of Africa improved more under European colonial rule than it did in the immediate aftermath of independence. This highlights the complex legacy of Western imperialism – while it often involved exploitation and oppression, it also brought some tangible benefits to colonized populations.
The development and spread of modern medicine was thus another crucial "killer app" that allowed Western civilization to extend its reach and influence around the globe.
Consumer Society: Fueling Growth Through Demand
The Industrial Revolution, which began in 18th century Britain, marked a turning point in human history. It was sparked by innovations in the textile industry, where high labor costs and abundant cheap coal drove industrialists to seek technological solutions to maintain profitability.
The results were astounding:
Increased Productivity: New technologies dramatically increased the efficiency of production.
Lower Costs: The price of goods, particularly textiles, plummeted.
Increased Demand: As goods became more affordable, demand skyrocketed.
This last point is crucial. Alongside the revolution in supply, there was a parallel revolution in demand. People across the globe suddenly desired and could afford new clothing and other manufactured goods. This demand, in turn, fueled further industrial growth.
The creation of a market-driven consumer society was another key "killer app" of Western civilization. It had several important effects:
Economic Growth: Increased demand led to more factories, higher employment, and better wages.
Improved Living Standards: As wages rose and goods became more affordable, the general standard of living improved.
Innovation: The constant demand for new and improved products drove further technological innovation.
Social Mobility: The consumer society created new opportunities for entrepreneurship and wealth creation.
The power of the consumer society is perhaps best illustrated by the failure of communism in the Soviet Union. While the Soviets could match the West in heavy industry and military hardware, they utterly failed to provide their citizens with desired consumer goods.
In a totalitarian society like the Soviet Union, production was driven by government priorities (like military equipment) rather than consumer demand. This led to several problems:
Scarcity: Despite having money, people often had nothing to spend it on due to shortages of consumer goods.
Low Quality: Without competition, there was little incentive to improve the quality of available goods.
Lack of Innovation: The absence of market pressures meant less drive for innovation in consumer products.
Discontent: People became increasingly dissatisfied as they saw the variety and quality of goods available in the West.
The formation of a consumer society was thus a crucial factor in raising living standards in the West and ultimately contributed to its victory in the Cold War. It demonstrated that economic systems that respond to consumer demand are more likely to produce prosperity and satisfaction than those that ignore it.
Work Ethic: The Protestant Engine of Productivity
One of the most intriguing "killer apps" of Western civilization was the development of a unique work ethic, largely influenced by Protestant Christianity. Following the Christian Reformation in 15th century Europe, the newly formed Protestant nations tended to grow faster economically than their Catholic counterparts.
The Protestant work ethic, as it came to be known, valued several key principles:
Hard Work: Labor was seen as a form of worship and a calling from God.
Thrift: Saving money and avoiding wasteful spending were considered virtuous.
Education: Knowledge and literacy were highly prized.
Honesty: Trust and integrity in business dealings were emphasized.
These values had profound economic implications:
Increased Productivity: The emphasis on hard work led to more efficient and productive labor forces.
Capital Accumulation: The focus on thrift allowed for the accumulation of capital, which could be reinvested in businesses and industry.
Innovation: The value placed on education and knowledge fostered technological and business innovations.
Efficient Markets: The emphasis on honesty and trust allowed for the development of complex business networks and financial systems.
The Protestant work ethic played a crucial role in several key developments in Western civilization:
The Industrial Revolution: The hardworking, disciplined workforce was essential for the growth of factories and industry.
Capitalism: The principles of thrift and reinvestment were fundamental to the development of capitalist economies.
Entrepreneurship: The combination of hard work, education, and capital accumulation created an environment ripe for new business ventures.
In contrast, some other civilizations had belief systems that were less conducive to economic growth. In China, for instance, Confucianism emphasized social stability over progress, which may have contributed to economic stagnation.
Interestingly, the influence of the Protestant work ethic has extended beyond traditionally Protestant countries. In recent years, the rapid growth of the Chinese economy has coincided with a significant increase in Protestant Christianity in the country, suggesting that these values can be adopted and can drive economic growth even in very different cultural contexts.
It's important to note that while the Protestant work ethic was a powerful force for economic growth, it also had its downsides. The relentless focus on work and productivity could lead to exploitation, inequality, and a neglect of other important aspects of life.
Nevertheless, the development of this unique work ethic was undoubtedly one of the key factors that allowed Western civilization to achieve such remarkable economic growth and global influence.
The Rest Catches Up: Downloading the Killer Apps
As Western civilization rose to global dominance, many other societies looked on with a mixture of awe, envy, and resentment. Eager to replicate the West's success, several nations attempted to "download" the killer applications that had propelled Western civilization to the forefront.
Japan was one of the first non-Western nations to recognize the need for westernization. In the late 19th century, during the Meiji Restoration, Japanese leaders embarked on a dramatic transformation of their society:
Fashion: Traditional Japanese clothing was abandoned in favor of Western styles, particularly for civil servants and the military.
Industry: Japan rapidly developed a Western-style industrial base.
Military: The country adopted Western military technology and tactics.
Education: Western scientific and technical knowledge was eagerly absorbed.
Government: Japan reformed its political system, creating a constitutional monarchy with some democratic elements.
This wholesale adoption of Western practices allowed Japan to quickly catch up with Western powers, becoming the first non-Western nation to industrialize successfully.
Other Asian nations followed suit in the 20th century:
The "Asian Tigers" (South Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Singapore) adopted Western-style industrial and economic policies, leading to rapid economic growth.
China, under Deng Xiaoping, embraced market reforms and opened up to Western investment and technology, sparking decades of unprecedented economic growth.
In the Middle East, Turkey provides an interesting case study. Following the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, Turkey under Mustafa Kemal Atatürk:
Secularized the state, rejecting the traditional Islamic caliphate.
Adopted a Western-style legal system.
Changed the Turkish alphabet from Arabic to Latin script.
Encouraged Western dress and customs.
These changes were aimed at transforming Turkey into a modern, Western-style nation-state.
However, not all attempts to westernize were successful or without problems:
Partial Adoption: Some countries cherry-picked certain aspects of Western civilization without fully understanding their interdependencies.
Cultural Resistance: Western practices often clashed with deeply ingrained cultural and religious traditions.
Unintended Consequences: Japan's adoption of Western imperialism, for instance, led to disastrous results in World War II.
Backlash: In some cases, westernization efforts provoked strong nationalist or religious counter-movements.
Despite these challenges, the overall trend has been clear: much of the "Rest" has been steadily adopting key elements of the Western model, from market economies to scientific education. This process of "downloading" Western killer apps has been a major factor in the rapid development of many non-Western nations in recent decades.
The Uncertain Future of Western Dominance
As we move further into the 21st century, the future of Western civilization's global dominance is increasingly uncertain. The "Great Divergence" that saw Western nations soar ahead of the rest of the world in terms of wealth, power, and influence appears to be slowly reversing.
Several factors contribute to this shift:
Economic Challenges: Many Western economies are struggling with high levels of debt, slow growth, and the aftermath of the 2008 financial crisis.
Rising Competitors: Asian economies, particularly China, continue to show impressive growth rates, narrowing the economic gap with the West.
Loss of Confidence: There's a growing sense of pessimism and self-doubt in many Western societies.
Demographic Changes: Many Western nations face aging populations and low birth rates, while some developing countries have younger, growing populations.
Ferguson argues that Westerners seem to have forgotten some of their own killer applications:
Work Ethic: The strong work ethic that drove economic success has weakened in many areas. Europeans, for instance, now work some of the shortest hours in the world.
Thrift: The culture of saving has been largely replaced by one of easy credit and high consumer debt.
Competition: Some argue that Western societies have become too comfortable and risk-averse, losing the competitive edge that drove past successes.
Perhaps most concerning is what Ferguson sees as a loss of cultural self-confidence in the West. Since the 1960s, there has been a shift in Western education towards cultural relativism – the idea that all cultures are equally valid and valuable. While this approach has merits, Ferguson argues that it has led to a situation where:
Young people in the West learn little about the narrative of Western history and the unique achievements of Western civilization.
Western cultural institutions like museums, schools, and media often seem more interested in celebrating the history and culture of other civilizations than their own.
There's a reluctance to assert the superiority of Western values like democracy, individual liberty, and the rule of law.
This loss of confidence could potentially undermine the West's ability to face future challenges and maintain its global influence.
However, it's important to note that many elements of Western civilization continue to thrive globally:
Democracy: Despite challenges, democratic governance remains an aspiration for many around the world.
Scientific Method: Western scientific principles continue to drive global technological progress.
Market Capitalism: Most of the world's fastest-growing economies have adopted market-based systems.
Popular Culture: Western music, films, and fashion continue to have global appeal.
In many ways, the rise of other civilizations has been largely due to their successful adoption of these Western "killer apps." The challenge for the West may not be maintaining dominance, but rather adapting to a world where its most successful innovations have become global norms.
As we look to the future, several questions emerge:
Can the West regain its competitive edge and innovative spirit?
Will rising powers like China fully embrace Western-style political freedoms along with economic reforms?
How will Western values evolve in an increasingly interconnected and multicultural world?
Can the West find a balance between cultural confidence and openness to other perspectives?
The answers to these questions will likely shape the course of global civilization in the coming decades.
Conclusion
Niall Ferguson's "Civilization: The West and the Rest" provides a compelling narrative of how Western civilization rose from relative obscurity to global dominance over the course of five centuries. By identifying six "killer applications" – competition, science, property rights, medicine, consumer society, and work ethic – Ferguson offers a framework for understanding this remarkable transformation.
These institutional innovations allowed Western nations to outpace their rivals, leading to unprecedented advancements in wealth, power, health, and quality of life. The book demonstrates how these "apps" worked together to create a uniquely dynamic and adaptive civilization capable of spreading its influence across the globe.
However, Ferguson's analysis doesn't stop at celebrating Western achievements. He also grapples with the complex legacy of Western dominance, including the darker chapters of imperialism and exploitation. Moreover, he raises important questions about the future of Western civilization in a world where many of its innovations have been successfully adopted by rising powers.
As we move further into the 21st century, the story of Western civilization continues to evolve. While the era of unquestioned Western dominance may be coming to an end, the impact of its killer apps continues to shape our global society. Understanding this history – both its triumphs and its failures – is crucial for navigating the challenges of our increasingly interconnected world.
Ferguson's work serves as both a celebration of Western achievements and a wake-up call. It challenges readers to consider how the killer apps that drove Western success can be maintained and adapted for a new era, and how Western societies can regain the confidence and dynamism that fueled their rise.
Ultimately, "Civilization" reminds us that the course of history is not predetermined. Just as Western civilization's rise was the result of specific innovations and choices, its future – and the future of global civilization – will be shaped by the decisions and actions we take today. By understanding our past, we can better prepare for the challenges and opportunities that lie ahead.