Introduction
Mary Beard's "Civilizations" takes readers on a captivating journey through the history of human artistic expression. This book explores how art has shaped our understanding of the world and provides valuable insights into the values and ideas of various civilizations throughout history. From the grand pyramids of ancient Egypt to the intricate mosaics of Byzantine churches, Beard demonstrates how art can unlock the secrets of past societies and help us better understand our own.
The Power of Art in Shaping Perception
Art has an incredible ability to influence how we perceive the world around us. Sometimes, this influence is obvious and grandiose, like the towering pyramids of ancient Egypt that served as a clear statement of power and authority. Other times, the impact is more subtle, such as a family portrait hanging on a wall that reminds us of our loved ones and our place within a larger family unit.
Beard argues that by examining the art of different civilizations, we can gain valuable insights into their beliefs, values, and social structures. Just as a contemporary installation by Damien Hirst might reveal aspects of our postmodern society, ancient artifacts like wine coolers or medieval mosques can provide clues about the cultures that created them.
The Importance of Context in Understanding Art
One of the key ideas presented in "Civilizations" is that the meaning of artworks is heavily influenced by the way people interact with them. Beard emphasizes that to truly understand ancient art, we must consider how it was originally intended to be experienced, rather than simply viewing it in a museum or library setting.
The Singing Statues of Thebes
To illustrate this point, Beard discusses the two statues of Pharaoh Amenhotep III in Thebes. These statues were famous in antiquity for their ability to "sing" – a phenomenon that may have been caused by air escaping through cracks in the masonry or perhaps even mischievous local children playing pranks. Regardless of the cause, visitors to Thebes began to interpret hearing the statue's song as a good omen.
The author recounts the story of Roman Emperor Hadrian's visit to the statues, which was recorded in verse by the courtier Julia Balbilla in 130 CE. This poem, later inscribed on the statue itself, declared that Hadrian had heard the sound, interpreting it as a sign of divine favor. This example demonstrates how the meaning of art in the ancient world was often tied to the experiences and interpretations of those who interacted with it.
Athenian Ceramics: More Than Meets the Eye
Beard also discusses the significance of Athenian ceramics, using a fifth-century BCE wine cooler as an example. The vessel is decorated with images of drunken satyrs engaged in wild behavior, which might initially appear to be a celebration of hedonism. However, Beard reveals that the true meaning is more complex.
At the time this wine cooler was created, Athenians were in the process of building cities and establishing urban life. The images on the cooler were designed to provoke thought about the line between civilization and barbarity – a pressing concern for a society in transition. By placing these thought-provoking images on an everyday object like a wine cooler, the artists ensured that users would engage with these ideas regularly.
Art as a Medium for Remembrance and Coping with Loss
Throughout history, humans have turned to art as a way to remember the dead and cope with loss. Before the invention of photography, people relied on various forms of artistic representation to keep the memory of their loved ones alive.
The Greek Statue of Phrasikleia
Beard describes the Greek statue of Phrasikleia, excavated near Athens in the 1970s, as a powerful example of how art was used to remember the deceased. This funerary statue, still bearing traces of its original red paint, marks the final resting place of a young Greek maiden. The statue's unflinching gaze and the flower held in her hand create an intimate connection with the viewer. An inscription on the plinth, written in the first person, speaks of how Phrasikleia died before her wedding day, adding to the poignancy of the piece.
Roman Egyptian Portraits
The author also discusses the importance of portraiture in Roman mourning rituals. These vivid paintings, often used to decorate coffins, employed powerful lighting and shading effects to create lifelike representations of the deceased. Evidence suggests that these decorated coffins may have remained in the homes of mourners for some time before burial, serving as a focal point for remembrance and grief.
The Legend of Boutades
Beard recounts the story told by Roman historian Pliny the Elder about the daughter of a man named Boutades. According to the tale, this young woman traced the shadow of her lover's head by candlelight before he departed on a long journey. Boutades then sculpted this outline in ceramic, creating what is said to be the earliest known three-dimensional portrait. This legend illustrates the longstanding human desire to keep absent loved ones close through artistic representation.
Art as a Demonstration of Power
While art has served intimate, personal functions throughout history, it has also been used as a public demonstration of power and authority. Rulers and civilizations have long used monumental artworks to impress both their subjects and themselves.
The Terracotta Army of Qin Shihuangdi
One of the most spectacular examples of art as a demonstration of power is the army of terracotta warriors found in the tomb of Qin Shihuangdi, the first emperor of unified China. Excavated in the 1970s, this vast array of 7,000 individual soldiers buried with the emperor is a breathtaking display of scale and craftsmanship. Each soldier has distinct facial features, and their armor is intricately crafted from individual pieces.
Beard notes that while the soldiers' faces were created using a combination of repeated generic features rather than being portraits of specific individuals, the sheer scale and detail of the project speak volumes about the emperor's power. The time and resources required to create this army, only to bury it unseen, serve as a potent symbol of Qin Shihuangdi's importance and authority.
Ramses II and the "Ramesseum"
In contrast to the hidden terracotta army, Beard discusses the approach taken by Egyptian Pharaoh Ramses II, who was born around 1300 BCE. Ramses went to great lengths to have his image prominently displayed throughout his kingdom during his lifetime. The ubiquity of his likeness in his tomb and temple has led to the complex being dubbed the "Ramesseum." Even today, two enormous statues of Ramses guard the temple in Luxor.
While these public displays of Ramses' image were clearly intended to impress his power upon his subjects, Beard suggests that their effectiveness may have been limited. She points out that the subjects of such propaganda were likely to have been just as skeptical and prone to mockery as modern audiences would be.
Interestingly, Beard also notes that many depictions of Ramses inside the Luxor temple would have only been seen by members of the elite. This raises the possibility that part of the motivation behind these hidden images was to convince Ramses himself of his own divine status and power.
The Evolution of Realism in Ancient Art
Beard explores a significant shift in ancient Greek sculpture that occurred between the fifth and sixth centuries BCE. During this period, traditional ways of depicting humans gave way to a new, more realistic style that emphasized lifelike representations of muscles, limbs, and movement. This change had far-reaching consequences for the relationship between art and civilization.
The Aphrodite of Knidos
One of the most striking examples of this new realistic style is the Aphrodite of Knidos, created by the artist Praxiteles around 330 BCE. This sculpture was groundbreaking in its depiction of a full-sized, completely naked woman – a stark departure from the custom of only portraying clothed women. Beard argues that this work must have been as shocking to its contemporary audience as Marcel Duchamp's avant-garde creations were to European audiences in the twentieth century.
The author points out that the sculpture's eroticism goes beyond mere nudity. The positioning of Aphrodite's hand, ostensibly covering her pubis, actually draws the viewer's gaze to that area, creating a provocative and charged atmosphere. Beard suggests that this work marks the beginning of what 1970s feminists would later term the "male gaze" – a particular way of viewing and depicting the female body that continues to influence art and media to this day.
The Establishment of the "Classical Style"
The realistic style pioneered by artists like Praxiteles eventually came to be defined as the "classical style," setting a benchmark for future civilizations to aspire to in their own art. Beard credits the eighteenth-century German art historian and archaeologist Johann Joachim Winckelmann with cementing this idea.
Winckelmann viewed the art of antiquity as unsurpassable, particularly admiring a statue known as the Apollo Belvedere. In his 1774 book "The History of the Art of the Ancient World," he placed this work at the pinnacle of classical art. Winckelmann went on to argue that art achieves perfection when it reflects the best possible political arrangements, suggesting that the state of the arts could be seen as a symptom of a civilization's overall health and value.
This perspective had a profound impact on how later generations viewed and valued art, with many striving to emulate or return to the perceived perfection of the classical style.
The Significance of Religious Art
Beard emphasizes that to truly understand the significance of religious art, one must look beyond its aesthetic qualities and consider how believers interact with it. She provides several examples to illustrate this point.
The Ajanta Caves
The author discusses the early twentieth-century efforts of British artist Christiana Herringham to document the religious paintings in India's Ajanta caves. While Herringham's desire to preserve these deteriorating Buddhist works was commendable, Beard argues that by treating them solely as fine art, she misinterpreted their true purpose.
The frescoes in the Ajanta caves were not designed simply to be looked at passively. Instead, they were created to encourage active engagement from viewers. The paintings, which depict scenes from the life of Buddha, are not arranged chronologically or thematically. This deliberate lack of organization was intended to make viewers engage with the stories on their own terms, creating a complex representation of Buddhist faith rather than a straightforward narrative or purely aesthetic experience.
The Church of San Vitale
In contrast to the Ajanta caves, Beard examines the religious artwork inside the Church of San Vitale in Ravenna, Italy. Built around 540 CE, the church features stunning golden mosaics that reflect contemporary Christian debates about the nature of Jesus and his relationship to God. Unlike the Ajanta caves, these mosaics are designed to guide viewers to a specific conclusion about Jesus's divine nature.
The mosaics in San Vitale present a visual journey through Jesus's life, beginning with his depiction as a baby, then as a symbolic lamb, and finally as a bearded, omnipotent figure of undoubted divinity. This progression leaves little room for interpretation, instead serving to reinforce the church's official doctrine.
Art as a Bridge to Religious Experience
Beard argues that religious art can serve as a bridge between believers and the historical events that form the basis of their faith. She uses Jacopo Tintoretto's mural of the crucifixion in Venice's Scuola di San Rocco as an example of how art can bring the past into the present.
Tintoretto's massive mural, created between 1560 and 1580, breathes life into the history of Christianity by depicting the central figures in contemporary 16th-century clothing. This technique collapses the temporal distance between the viewer and the historical event, making the crucifixion feel immediate and present rather than a distant historical occurrence.
The Virgin of Macarena
Another example of art providing a religious experience is the statue of the Virgin Mary in Seville's church of the Macarena. This 17th-century statue has been continuously embellished by later generations, who have donated clothes and jewelry to adorn it. The addition of real human hair and other lifelike touches has transformed the sculpture into an object that many believers treat as if it were a real person.
Beard describes how the statue is paraded through the streets on Good Friday, with the faithful reacting as if they were encountering a living, breathing Virgin Mary. This example illustrates how religious art can transcend its status as a mere object to become a conduit for profound spiritual experiences.
Iconoclasm and Its Complexities
While discussing the relationship between art and religion, Beard also explores the concept of iconoclasm – the religious rejection of images. She argues that iconoclasm is often more nuanced and complex than it might initially appear.
Ely Cathedral
Beard uses the example of Ely Cathedral to illustrate how iconoclasm doesn't always result in complete destruction. During the 17th-century conflict between Protestants and Catholics in England, the cathedral fell into the hands of Protestant reformer Oliver Cromwell in 1644. His followers set about destroying what they saw as idolatrous decorations, particularly in the Lady Chapel.
However, Beard notes that the destruction was selective rather than thorough. Often, only the most human features of sculptures – such as hands and heads – were targeted. The result was a transformation of the space rather than its complete obliteration. Today, the Lady Chapel has a kind of austere beauty that is a direct result of this historical iconoclasm.
The Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque
Beard also discusses the Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque in Delhi, India, constructed in the 1190s. This mosque initially incorporated traditional Hindu designs, including human figures, which were often defaced to signify the Islamic conquest of the space. However, many of these older figures, with their faces removed, were repurposed as decorative elements in the new mosque.
This example demonstrates that iconoclasts sometimes admired certain aspects of the imagery they otherwise rejected, leading to a more complex relationship with the art they were ostensibly destroying.
Representing the Divine: Beyond Figurative Art
Beard challenges the misconception that Islam, with its general prohibition on depicting living creatures, is an artless religion. Instead, she argues that Islam, like other religions, has engaged in rich debates about aesthetics and found alternative ways to represent the divine.
The Blue Mosque in Istanbul
The author uses Istanbul's famous Blue Mosque as an example of how Islamic art uses the written word to represent divinity. Commissioned in the early 17th century, the mosque features intricate floral-patterned ceramic tiles and, most notably, beautiful Arabic calligraphy. The calligraphy serves both an instructive and aesthetic purpose, reminding worshippers of Allah's power and the importance of maintaining purity outside the mosque.
Beard explains that calligraphy has been vital to Islamic art since the 7th century, as its exquisite form communicates the presence of the divine even to those who cannot read Arabic.
The Kennicott Bible
To demonstrate that the use of text as art is not unique to Islam, Beard discusses the Kennicott Bible, a Jewish manuscript created in mid-15th century Spain. This remarkable work reflects the cultural blending of Jewish, Christian, and Muslim traditions in medieval Spain.
The manuscript features pages that resemble Islamic carpets filled with tiny Hebrew text, showcasing the Jewish tradition of micrography or "tiny writing." The book concludes with the artist's signature in massive letters incorporating fantastical animal and human forms, further blurring the line between text and image.
Beard uses this example to underscore the fact that there is no definitive answer to how the divine can be represented, and that acceptable boundaries continually shift as cultures interact and merge.
Conclusion
Mary Beard's "Civilizations" offers a fascinating exploration of how art has shaped human understanding of the world throughout history. By examining a wide range of artistic expressions from various cultures and time periods, Beard demonstrates that art is far more than mere decoration or entertainment. It is a powerful tool for communication, remembrance, religious expression, and the assertion of power.
The book challenges readers to look beyond the surface of artworks and consider their broader cultural and historical contexts. Beard emphasizes that the meaning of art is not fixed but is continually shaped by those who create it, view it, and interact with it. From ancient Greek sculptures to Islamic calligraphy, each piece of art tells a story about the civilization that produced it and the values it held dear.
"Civilizations" reminds us that art is a key that unlocks the door to history, allowing us to step into the minds and worlds of those who came before us. By understanding the art of past civilizations, we gain valuable insights into our own culture and the universal human experiences that connect us across time and space.
As we reflect on the ideas presented in "Civilizations," we are encouraged to approach art with a more open and inquisitive mind. Whether we're admiring a Renaissance painting, a Buddhist cave fresco, or a contemporary installation, we should consider not just its aesthetic qualities but also its cultural significance, intended purpose, and the ways in which people have interacted with it over time.
Ultimately, Beard's work invites us to see art as a mirror of humanity – reflecting our beliefs, our struggles, our aspirations, and our ever-evolving understanding of the world around us. By studying the art of civilizations past and present, we gain a deeper appreciation for the rich tapestry of human experience and the enduring power of creative expression.