Cooked

Introduction

In his book "Cooked: A Natural History of Transformation," Michael Pollan takes readers on a fascinating journey through the world of cooking and its profound impact on human evolution and culture. Pollan argues that cooking is not just a daily chore or a hobby, but a fundamental aspect of what makes us human. This book explores how the simple act of transforming raw ingredients into cooked meals has shaped our species, our societies, and our relationship with the natural world.

Pollan's exploration is divided into four main sections, each focusing on a different element of cooking: fire (grilling), water (braising), air (baking bread), and earth (fermentation). Through these lenses, he examines the history, science, and cultural significance of various cooking methods and their products.

The Transformative Power of Cooking

One of the central ideas in "Cooked" is that the act of cooking has been a driving force in human evolution. Pollan presents compelling evidence that cooking played a crucial role in our development as a species.

Cooking and Human Evolution

Pollan introduces the hypothesis of primatologist Richard Wrangham, who suggests that before humans began cooking, our apelike ancestors spent over half their day chewing food. This extensive chewing time was necessary because raw food is harder to digest and less nutritious than cooked food. By cooking their food, early humans were able to extract more nutrients and energy from their diet, which had far-reaching consequences for our evolution.

The author explains that cooking alters the composition of food both physically and chemically, making it more nutritious and easier to digest. For example, when we cook protein-rich foods like meat, the heat unravels the structure of the proteins, making them more accessible to the enzymes in our stomachs. This process unlocks more energy and nutrients from the food.

Pollan provides a striking example with eggs: a cooked egg is 90% digestible by the human gut, while a raw egg is only 65% digestible. This principle applies to many other foods as well – the more thoroughly cooked, the easier it is for our bodies to absorb the nutrients.

Cooking and Human Physiology

The adoption of cooking had significant impacts on human physiology. Pollan explains that without cooking, humans would need much larger guts and more powerful jaws to process raw food effectively. Our apelike ancestors had these traits, but they came with trade-offs. By cooking food, early humans were able to develop smaller guts and less robust jaws, freeing up energy for other evolutionary developments, such as larger brains.

Moreover, cooking made it possible for humans to expand their diet. Some plants, like cassava, are toxic when raw but become safe and nutritious when cooked. This ability to detoxify and make edible a wider range of foods allowed humans to adapt to various environments and climates.

Cooking and Food Preservation

Another crucial benefit of cooking that Pollan highlights is food preservation. Cooking extends the shelf life of many foods, allowing humans to store food for longer periods. This ability to preserve food had significant implications for human societies, enabling them to become more stable and less dependent on daily foraging or hunting.

The Fifth Taste: Umami

In exploring the science of cooking, Pollan delves into the fascinating world of taste, particularly focusing on umami, often called the fifth taste.

Discovery of Umami

For a long time, scientists recognized only four basic tastes: bitter, sweet, sour, and salty. However, in 1908, Japanese researcher Kikunae Ikeda identified a fifth taste, which he named umami. Ikeda made this discovery while studying the crystals that form on dried kelp, a common ingredient in Japanese cuisine.

Ikeda isolated glutamate, a compound that didn't fit into the existing taste categories. It wasn't until 2001 that Western scientists confirmed the existence of specific taste receptors for glutamate on the human tongue, finally accepting umami as the fifth basic taste.

The Science of Umami

Pollan explains that while glutamate is the basis of many distinctly flavored foods, it's not particularly tasty on its own. Umami emerges when glutamate combines with other flavors. Additionally, umami is associated with the texture of certain foods. Liquids containing umami-rich compounds can feel thicker on the tongue.

The author notes that two other molecules also contribute to umami flavors: inosine, found in fish, and guanosine, present in mushrooms. Foods that contain all three of these molecules, like traditional Japanese soup stock, create a powerful umami experience.

Umami in Different Cuisines

Pollan explores how various cuisines around the world have intuitively incorporated umami-rich ingredients long before the scientific understanding of this taste. Examples include:

1. Bacon in Western cuisine
2. Fish sauce in Southeast Asian dishes
3. Porcini mushrooms in Italian risotto
4. Kelp in Japanese broths

The popularity of these ingredients and dishes can be attributed, at least in part, to their umami content, which adds depth and satisfaction to meals.

The Rise of Convenience Foods and Its Consequences

A significant portion of "Cooked" is dedicated to examining the shift away from home cooking towards convenience foods and its impact on health and society.

Post-War Food Industry Transformation

Pollan traces the origins of the modern convenience food industry to the post-World War II era. Food manufacturers that had been supplying rations to troops needed new markets for their products. As a result, items like canned dinners, dehydrated potatoes, and instant coffee became staples in 1950s American households.

The Food-Industrial Complex

The author introduces the concept of the "food-industrial complex," a system comprising not just large farms but also food manufacturers, advertising executives, and marketers. This complex worked to create a surplus of industrially-processed food, which quickly became the basis of the American diet.

Pollan points out that only about 20% of the money households spend on food goes to the people who produce it. The rest is absorbed by this complex system of processing, packaging, and marketing.

Health Consequences of Convenience Foods

As people began to rely more on convenience foods and cook less at home, diets became less healthy overall. Pollan explains several reasons for this:

1. Processed foods are often less nutritious than fresh, home-cooked meals.
2. It's cheaper for companies to create processed foods using sugar, fat, and salt added to a base of corn or soybean material than it is to produce whole, natural foods.
3. The ease of obtaining and consuming processed foods leads to overconsumption.

The Inverse Correlation Between Cooking and Obesity

Pollan cites a 2003 study by Harvard economists that found a strong inverse correlation between time spent cooking and obesity levels across different cultures. The more time people spend preparing food in the kitchen, the lower their overall obesity rates tend to be.

Interestingly, the study found that time spent cooking was a better predictor of obesity levels than either income or the percentage of women in the workforce. This suggests that the act of cooking itself, rather than just socioeconomic factors, plays a crucial role in maintaining a healthy diet.

The History and Importance of Bread

Bread holds a special place in Pollan's exploration of cooking, as it represents a significant leap in human culinary history and nutrition.

The Evolution of Bread

Pollan traces the development of bread from its earliest forms to modern times:

1. Early humans ate seeds of wild grasses, the only part of the plant immediately digestible.
2. As societies began cultivating these plants, they harvested larger, more nutritious seeds.
3. People discovered that mashing, roasting, or soaking seeds made them more filling and sustaining.
4. Unleavened bread was created by cooking seed mush on hot surfaces.
5. Around 4000 BC in Egypt, the first leavened bread was accidentally created when fermented dough was baked.

Nutritional Benefits of Bread

The author emphasizes that bread is far more nutritious than the sum of its parts. The processes of fermentation and baking release nutrients that are inaccessible in raw ingredients. While a diet of raw wheat flour could sustain a person for a short time, one can live on baked bread indefinitely.

Bread and Energy Efficiency

Pollan explains why bread became a staple food from an energy perspective. Grasses like wheat, barley, oats, and spelt cover about 65% of the earth's surface, efficiently capturing solar energy through photosynthesis. By eating bread, humans tap directly into this energy source, bypassing the inefficiencies of the animal-based food chain.

The author illustrates this concept by explaining that when one animal eats another, only 10% of the prey's consumed energy is accessible to the predator. By consuming plants and seeds directly, humans access a much larger portion of the original energy captured by the plants.

The Problem with Modern Bread

While celebrating the historical importance of bread, Pollan also critiques the state of modern bread production and consumption.

The Rise of White Bread

The author traces the human craving for white bread back to ancient times. For Greeks and Romans, white bread was a luxury item, associated with cleanliness and wholesomeness. It was also sweeter and easier to chew, an important factor in times of poor dental hygiene.

However, the transition to pure white bread as a staple came in the 19th century with the invention of roller mills. These machines could completely separate the germ and bran from the wheat seed, leaving only the starch.

Nutritional Consequences

Pollan points out that removing the germ and bran also removes the most nutritious parts of the wheat seed, where vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants are found. As a result, white flour has little nutritional content and is metabolically similar to pure sugar.

The widespread consumption of white bread led to increased rates of malnourishment, diabetes, and heart disease in the early 20th century. In response, governments encouraged bread producers to fortify white bread with nutrients. However, these added nutrients don't fully replicate the nutritional complexity of whole grain bread.

Modern "Whole Grain" Bread

Even modern attempts to create healthier bread often fall short. Many "whole-grain" loaves are loaded with additives and sugar to make them taste more like white bread. Pollan argues that these products are still nutritionally inferior to traditional whole wheat bread.

The Importance of Microbes in Cooking and Health

A significant portion of "Cooked" is dedicated to exploring the role of microbes in both cooking and human health.

Humans as Superorganisms

Pollan introduces the concept of humans as superorganisms, composed primarily of microbes. He explains that:

1. Nine-tenths of the cells in a human body are those of microbial species.
2. 99% of the DNA in a human body is microbial DNA.
3. The vast majority of these microbes live in the gut.

The Role of Microbes in Digestion

The author explains that microbes serve as external digesters, breaking down food so that our bodies can better absorb nutrients. This symbiotic relationship is crucial for human health and nutrition.

Microbes and Fermentation

Pollan highlights the essential role of microbes in the process of fermentation, which is responsible for creating many beloved foods and drinks, including:

1. Cheese
2. Coffee
3. Bread
4. Beer
5. Chocolate

He notes that nearly every culture on the planet uses fermentation in some way to create edible foods.

The Health Benefits of Fermented Foods

The author argues that the modern trend towards sterilizing our food may be depriving us of potential health benefits provided by microbes. He cites several advantages of consuming naturally fermented foods:

1. Improved digestion
2. Reduced inflammation
3. Strengthened immune system
4. Potential cancer-fighting properties

Pollan provides historical examples of the recognized health benefits of fermented foods, such as Captain Cook taking sauerkraut on long sea voyages to combat scurvy among his crew.

The Dangers of Over-Sterilization

While acknowledging the importance of food safety, Pollan warns against the overuse of antibiotics and the trend towards completely sterile foods. He argues that these practices can reduce the microbial diversity in our guts, potentially leading to health problems.

The Universal Appeal of Alcohol

In exploring fermented foods, Pollan dedicates significant attention to alcohol, noting its widespread appeal across both human cultures and the animal kingdom.

Alcohol in Nature

The author provides fascinating examples of how alcohol occurs naturally and is consumed by various animals:

1. Rotting durian fruit attracts tigers, wild pigs, and rhinos, all seeking the spontaneously fermented alcohol.
2. The bertram palm in Malaysia produces fermented flower buds that are consumed daily by the pen-tailed tree shrew.
3. Studies have shown that chimps and rats also enjoy alcohol, though their drinking habits differ.

Alcohol in Human Societies

Pollan notes that while humans are the only animals known to deliberately produce alcohol, its consumption is universal across human cultures. He explores various theories about why alcohol became so prevalent:

1. Its mood-altering effects
2. Its role in social bonding
3. Its ability to make water safe to drink (in times before clean water was widely available)

Social Drinking in Animals and Humans

The author points out that many species, including humans, tend to drink alcohol socially. He suggests a practical reason for this behavior: a single drunk animal is an easy target for predators, so drinking in groups offers some protection.

Cultural Differences in Fermented Foods

While alcohol seems to have universal appeal, Pollan notes that tastes for other fermented foods are often culturally determined.

Acquired Tastes

The author explores how certain fermented foods with strong flavors become acquired tastes, usually developed in childhood:

1. Korean kimchi
2. Icelandic pickled shark
3. Aged French cheese

People who encounter these foods later in life often have strong positive or negative reactions to them.

Cultural Misunderstandings

Pollan shares an amusing anecdote from World War II to illustrate how cultural differences in fermented foods can lead to misunderstandings. American troops in Normandy mistook the smell of stored Camembert cheese for rotting corpses and nearly destroyed valuable food stores.

The Decline of Home Cooking and Its Consequences

Throughout "Cooked," Pollan returns to the theme of how the decline in home cooking has affected our health, our communities, and our relationship with food.

The Shift Away from Home Cooking

The author traces how various factors contributed to the decline of home cooking in the 20th century:

1. The rise of the food industry and convenience foods
2. Increased participation of women in the workforce
3. The perception of cooking as a chore rather than a valuable skill or creative outlet

Impact on Health

Pollan argues that the shift away from home cooking has had significant negative impacts on public health:

1. Increased consumption of processed foods high in sugar, salt, and unhealthy fats
2. Larger portion sizes due to the ease of preparing packaged meals
3. Loss of control over ingredients and cooking methods

Social and Cultural Impacts

Beyond health, the author explores how the decline of home cooking has affected society:

1. Loss of family mealtime and its associated social benefits
2. Decreased food literacy and cooking skills passed down through generations
3. Weakened connections to cultural food traditions

The Value of Cooking

Pollan makes a case for the importance of home cooking, arguing that it:

1. Gives us control over what we eat and how it's prepared
2. Connects us to our food sources and the natural world
3. Provides a creative outlet and a way to care for others
4. Helps maintain cultural traditions and family bonds

The Art and Science of Fermentation

In the final sections of the book, Pollan delves deeper into the process of fermentation, exploring its history, science, and cultural significance.

The Magic of Fermentation

The author describes fermentation as a kind of alchemy, transforming simple ingredients into complex, flavorful, and often more nutritious foods. He explores various fermentation processes, including:

1. Bread making
2. Cheese production
3. Beer brewing
4. Vegetable fermentation (like sauerkraut and kimchi)

The Science Behind Fermentation

Pollan explains the basic science of fermentation, describing how microorganisms break down complex molecules into simpler ones, often producing alcohol, acids, and gases in the process. He highlights how this process can:

1. Preserve foods
2. Create new flavors and textures
3. Increase the bioavailability of nutrients
4. Introduce beneficial bacteria into our diets

Cultural Variations in Fermentation

The author explores how different cultures have developed unique fermented foods, reflecting their local ingredients, climates, and tastes. He argues that these fermented foods often form an important part of cultural identity and traditional cuisines.

The Revival of Fermentation

Pollan notes a growing interest in traditional fermentation techniques among home cooks and artisanal food producers. He sees this as a positive trend, reconnecting people with ancient food traditions and potentially improving gut health.

Conclusion: The Importance of Cooking in Human Life

In concluding "Cooked," Pollan reiterates his central argument that cooking is not just a daily chore or a hobby, but a fundamental aspect of what makes us human. He summarizes the key points made throughout the book:

1. Cooking played a crucial role in human evolution, allowing us to extract more nutrients from our food and potentially contributing to the development of larger brains.

2. The act of cooking connects us to the natural world, our food sources, and our cultural traditions.

3. The decline of home cooking and the rise of processed foods have had significant negative impacts on public health and social bonds.

4. Understanding and appreciating the processes behind cooking, including fermentation, can enrich our lives and improve our health.

5. By reclaiming the act of cooking, we can take control of our diets, our health, and to some extent, our relationship with the natural world.

Pollan encourages readers to view cooking not as a burden, but as a valuable and rewarding activity that connects us to our food, our bodies, our families, and our culture. He argues that by understanding the transformative power of cooking, we can make more informed choices about what we eat and how we live.

The author concludes by suggesting that cooking is more than just a means of preparing food – it's a way of engaging with the world around us, transforming raw ingredients into nourishment for both body and soul. In doing so, we participate in one of the most fundamental and uniquely human activities, one that has shaped our species and our societies for millennia.