"Destiny Disrupted" by Tamim Ansary offers a fascinating journey through world history from an Islamic perspective. While most Western history books focus on events and developments in Europe and the Americas, Ansary's work sheds light on the rich history of the Islamic world - a civilization that for centuries was at the forefront of human achievement and stood at the center of world affairs.
The book provides a sweeping narrative that begins with the birth of Islam in 7th century Arabia and traces its expansion and evolution over 1400 years. Ansary, who grew up in Afghanistan before moving to the United States, brings a unique cross-cultural perspective to his retelling of history. He helps readers understand how Muslims have viewed world events and their own place in history, offering insights that are often missing from Western accounts.
By exploring Islamic history and civilization, "Destiny Disrupted" aims to bridge the gap in understanding between the Western and Islamic worlds. It provides context for many of today's geopolitical conflicts and tensions, tracing their roots back through centuries of interaction and confrontation between these two civilizations. For anyone seeking to make sense of our complex modern world, Ansary's book offers an invaluable alternative view of how we got here.
The Birth of Islam
To understand the origins of Islam, we must first look at the world into which it was born. In the 6th century CE, the area between the Mediterranean Sea and China - what Ansary calls the "Middle World" - was a diverse landscape of empires, tribes, and trading networks. At the heart of this region was the Arabian Peninsula, home to nomadic Bedouin tribes and mercantile city-states like Mecca.
Mecca was an important trading hub and pilgrimage site, with its sacred Kaaba shrine drawing worshippers of many pagan gods. It was here, around 570 CE, that Muhammad was born into the influential Quraysh tribe. Orphaned at a young age, Muhammad grew up to become a successful merchant. But his life changed dramatically at age 40 when, according to Islamic tradition, he began receiving divine revelations from God through the angel Gabriel.
These revelations, which Muhammad recited to his followers, would eventually be compiled into the Quran - the holy book of Islam. The core message was simple yet revolutionary: there is only one God (Allah in Arabic) and Muhammad is His messenger. This monotheistic faith rejected the polytheism of Arabian paganism and called for social reforms to help the poor and oppressed.
Muhammad's preaching initially met with hostility from Mecca's pagan elites, who saw his message as a threat to their economic and religious power. Facing persecution, Muhammad and his small band of followers fled to the nearby city of Medina in 622 CE. This event, known as the Hijra, marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar.
In Medina, Muhammad established the first Islamic state, uniting the city's warring factions under his leadership. Over the next decade, his following grew rapidly as more Arabs embraced Islam. Through a combination of military campaigns and diplomacy, Muhammad eventually conquered Mecca and united most of Arabia under the banner of Islam shortly before his death in 632 CE.
The rapid spread of Islam in Arabia was due to several factors. Its message of social justice and equality appealed to many, especially the poor and marginalized. The simplicity of its core beliefs and practices made it accessible. And Muhammad's political and military successes convinced many that his new faith had divine favor.
The Rightly-Guided Caliphs and Early Islamic Expansion
After Muhammad's death, leadership of the Muslim community passed to a series of successors known as caliphs (meaning "deputies" or "successors"). The first four caliphs - Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, and Ali - are known as the "Rightly-Guided Caliphs" and are revered in Islamic tradition for their close association with Muhammad.
Under their leadership, Islam expanded at an astonishing rate. Within a few decades, Muslim armies had conquered vast territories, including Persia, Syria, Egypt, and much of North Africa. Several factors contributed to this rapid expansion:
The two dominant empires of the region - the Byzantine Empire and the Sassanid Persian Empire - were weakened by years of warfare against each other.
Many conquered peoples welcomed the Muslims as liberators from oppressive rule.
The Islamic policy of religious tolerance (non-Muslims could keep their faith by paying a special tax) made assimilation easier.
The simplicity and egalitarian nature of Islam appealed to many.
Arab military prowess and the fervor of new converts made Muslim armies formidable.
This period of expansion was not without internal strife, however. Disputes over succession led to the assassination of Uthman and a civil war known as the First Fitna. This conflict resulted in a permanent split in the Muslim community between Sunnis and Shias, who disagreed over who should lead the faithful.
Despite these internal conflicts, the Islamic empire continued to grow. By the early 8th century, it stretched from Spain in the west to the borders of India and China in the east - the largest empire the world had yet seen.
The Umayyad and Abbasid Caliphates
Following the Rightly-Guided Caliphs, two major dynasties ruled the Islamic world: the Umayyads (661-750 CE) and the Abbasids (750-1258 CE).
The Umayyad Caliphate, based in Damascus, oversaw further territorial expansion, including the conquest of Spain and advances into Central Asia and India. They also introduced Arabic as the official language of administration throughout the empire. However, their rule was marked by tensions between Arab Muslims and non-Arab converts, as well as between different Arab factions.
In 750 CE, the Abbasids overthrew the Umayyads and established a new caliphate centered in Baghdad. The Abbasid era, particularly the early period from 750-900 CE, is often considered the "Golden Age" of Islamic civilization. During this time:
Islamic culture flourished, with advancements in literature, art, and architecture.
Baghdad became the world's largest and most sophisticated city, a center of learning and culture.
Muslim scholars made significant contributions to science, mathematics, medicine, and philosophy. They preserved and built upon the knowledge of ancient Greece and other civilizations.
Trade networks expanded, linking the Islamic world with Europe, Africa, and Asia.
Islamic legal and theological traditions were systematized.
However, the vast Abbasid empire gradually fragmented as local dynasties asserted independence. By the 10th century, the caliphs were often figureheads, with real power held by regional rulers and military commanders.
Islamic Scholarship and Culture
During the centuries of Islamic expansion and consolidation, a rich intellectual and cultural tradition developed. Islamic scholars made significant contributions across many fields:
Theology and Law: Muslim jurists and theologians developed complex systems of Islamic law (Sharia) and doctrine. Different schools of thought emerged, allowing for diversity within the framework of Islamic orthodoxy.
Philosophy: Muslim philosophers like Al-Farabi, Avicenna, and Averroes engaged with and built upon Greek philosophy, particularly the works of Aristotle. They grappled with questions of reason and faith, free will and determinism, and the nature of existence.
Science and Mathematics: Muslim scientists made advances in astronomy, optics, medicine, and other fields. Mathematicians developed algebra and made important contributions to trigonometry and geometry.
Literature: A rich tradition of poetry, prose, and historical writing flourished in various Islamic languages, particularly Arabic and Persian.
Art and Architecture: Islamic art developed distinctive styles, particularly in calligraphy, geometric patterns, and arabesque designs. Architectural marvels like the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem and the Alhambra in Spain showcased Islamic aesthetic principles.
This intellectual ferment was supported by a network of institutions including mosques, madrasas (religious schools), and libraries. The House of Wisdom in Baghdad, established in the 8th century, was a renowned center of learning where scholars translated and studied texts from Greek, Persian, Indian, and other traditions.
Islamic mysticism, known as Sufism, also developed during this period. Sufis sought a direct, personal experience of the divine through practices like meditation, chanting, and ecstatic dance. While sometimes viewed with suspicion by orthodox authorities, Sufism became a significant strand of Islamic spirituality and played a major role in spreading Islam in many regions.
The Crusades and Mongol Invasions
The 11th to 13th centuries saw two major external challenges to the Islamic world: the Crusades and the Mongol invasions.
The Crusades, a series of military expeditions launched by European Christians to reclaim Jerusalem and the Holy Land, began in 1095. While the Crusaders initially succeeded in establishing Christian kingdoms in the Levant, these were eventually recaptured by Muslim forces, most notably under the leadership of Saladin in the late 12th century.
From the Islamic perspective, the Crusades were a shocking incursion by barbaric foreigners. However, they also led to increased cultural and commercial exchange between Europe and the Islamic world. Muslim military leaders like Saladin were even admired by their Christian opponents for their chivalry and military skill.
A far more devastating blow came with the Mongol invasions of the 13th century. Led by Genghis Khan and his successors, the Mongols conquered much of the Islamic world, including Persia and Mesopotamia. In 1258, they sacked Baghdad, bringing an end to the Abbasid Caliphate and destroying much of the city's cultural heritage.
The Mongol conquests were catastrophic for many Islamic lands, leading to widespread destruction and loss of life. However, some Mongol rulers eventually converted to Islam, leading to a new synthesis of Turkic-Mongol and Islamic cultures in many regions.
The Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal Empires
In the wake of the Mongol invasions, three great Islamic empires emerged, dominating much of the Islamic world from the 16th to the 18th centuries:
The Ottoman Empire: Based in Turkey, the Ottomans conquered Constantinople in 1453, ending the Byzantine Empire. At its height, the Ottoman Empire controlled much of Southeast Europe, Western Asia, and North Africa. The Ottomans were known for their military prowess, administrative efficiency, and architectural achievements.
The Safavid Empire: Centered in Persia (modern Iran), the Safavids established Twelver Shi'ism as the official religion of their empire. They were patrons of the arts and oversaw a flowering of Persian culture.
The Mughal Empire: Founded by descendants of the Mongols and Timur (Tamerlane), the Mughals ruled much of the Indian subcontinent. Under emperors like Akbar the Great, the Mughals presided over a multicultural empire that saw a synthesis of Islamic and Indian cultures.
These empires represented the power and sophistication of the Islamic world in the early modern period. They were wealthy, militarily powerful, and culturally dynamic. The Ottoman Sultan, in particular, claimed the title of Caliph and was seen as the leader of the Sunni Muslim world.
However, these empires also faced significant challenges. Internally, they struggled with succession disputes, the integration of diverse populations, and maintaining control over vast territories. Externally, they faced growing pressure from European powers, who were beginning to gain technological and economic advantages.
The Impact of European Expansion
As the Islamic empires reached their peak, Europe was undergoing profound changes. The Renaissance, the Scientific Revolution, and the beginnings of colonialism were transforming European societies and their relationship with the rest of the world.
Initially, Muslim rulers viewed European advances with little concern. The Ottoman Empire, in particular, remained a major power that Europeans feared well into the 17th century. However, several factors gradually shifted the balance:
Military Technology: European innovations in firearms and naval technology gave them increasing advantages in warfare.
Economic Changes: The discovery of the Americas and new trade routes weakened the Muslim world's control over east-west trade.
Scientific and Industrial Revolutions: These gave European nations significant technological and economic advantages.
Colonialism: European nations began establishing colonies and trading posts around the world, including in Muslim lands.
By the 18th century, the Islamic empires were clearly in decline relative to European powers. The Ottomans began losing territories in Europe and North Africa. Iran (the former Safavid Empire) became a battleground between Russian and British interests. And the Mughal Empire in India was gradually taken over by the British East India Company.
This period of decline and European encroachment had profound effects on Muslim societies:
It led to soul-searching about the causes of Muslim weakness and debates about how to respond.
It introduced new ideas and institutions, from secular education to modern military organizations.
It disrupted traditional social and economic structures.
It gave rise to new ideologies, including Islamic modernism and anti-colonial nationalism.
Reform and Renewal Movements
As Muslim societies grappled with decline and European dominance, various movements for reform and renewal emerged. These can be broadly categorized into three types:
Revivalist Movements: These sought to return to a "pure" Islam, free from what they saw as later corruptions. The most influential was Wahhabism, founded by Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab in Arabia. Wahhabism called for a strict interpretation of Islam and rejected many popular practices as un-Islamic. It formed an alliance with the House of Saud, eventually leading to the formation of Saudi Arabia.
Modernist Movements: Islamic modernists sought to reconcile Islam with modern ideas and institutions. Figures like Jamal al-Din al-Afghani and Muhammad Abduh argued that Islam was compatible with reason, science, and progress. They called for reforms in education and law, and for Muslims to selectively adopt beneficial aspects of Western civilization.
Nationalist Movements: As European colonialism expanded, many Muslims embraced nationalist ideologies. These movements often combined Islamic identity with modern concepts of nationhood and sought independence from colonial rule.
These movements often overlapped and influenced each other. For example, many nationalist leaders were also influenced by Islamic modernist ideas.
The Fall of the Ottoman Empire and the End of the Caliphate
The final blow to the traditional Islamic world order came with World War I. The Ottoman Empire, already weakened by territorial losses and internal reforms, entered the war on the side of Germany and Austria-Hungary. Its defeat led to the empire's dismemberment, with much of its territory divided among European powers.
In 1923, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk established the Republic of Turkey on the Ottoman heartland. Atatürk embarked on a radical program of secularization and Westernization, including the abolition of the caliphate in 1924. This marked the end of a political institution that had existed since the time of Muhammad.
The end of the Ottoman Empire and the caliphate had profound implications:
It left the Muslim world without a unifying political leadership for the first time in centuries.
It led to the creation of new nation-states in the Middle East, often with borders drawn by European powers.
It intensified debates about the relationship between Islam and modern political systems.
It contributed to a sense of crisis and loss in many Muslim societies.
Colonialism and Its Aftermath
The end of World War I saw much of the Muslim world under direct or indirect European control. This colonial period had far-reaching effects:
Political: Colonial powers imposed new political structures, often disregarding traditional boundaries and power structures.
Economic: Colonial economies were often oriented towards serving the interests of the colonial power rather than local development.
Cultural: Western education and values were introduced, leading to the emergence of Westernized elites in many Muslim countries.
Religious: While colonial powers often avoided direct interference in religious matters, their presence challenged traditional religious authorities and practices.
The experience of colonialism gave rise to various responses in Muslim societies:
Secular Nationalism: Many anti-colonial movements adopted secular nationalist ideologies, seeking to create modern nation-states.
Islamic Modernism: This movement sought to prove Islam's compatibility with modern ideas and institutions.
Islamism: Some groups argued for a return to Islamic governance as an alternative to both Western models and local autocracies.
Pan-Islamism: This ideology called for unity among Muslims across national boundaries.
As Muslim-majority countries gained independence in the mid-20th century, they faced the challenge of building modern states while grappling with the legacies of colonialism and their Islamic heritage.
The Creation of Israel and the Arab-Israeli Conflict
One of the most consequential developments in the post-World War II Muslim world was the creation of the state of Israel in 1948. This event, and the subsequent Arab-Israeli conflict, has had a profound impact on the region and on Muslim attitudes towards the West.
From the Arab and Muslim perspective, the establishment of Israel was seen as a continuation of European colonialism. The influx of Jewish settlers, many fleeing persecution in Europe, was viewed as an unjust dispossession of Palestinian Arabs. The defeat of Arab armies in the 1948 war and the resulting Palestinian refugee crisis were deeply humiliating.
Subsequent Arab-Israeli wars in 1967 and 1973 further entrenched the conflict. Israel's victory in the 1967 Six-Day War, in particular, was a turning point. Israel's occupation of the West Bank, Gaza, East Jerusalem, and other territories fed into a narrative of Muslim weakness and Western-backed Israeli aggression.
The Palestinian cause became a rallying point for many Muslims worldwide. It was seen not just as a local conflict, but as a symbol of Western injustice against Muslims. This perception was reinforced by the United States' strong support for Israel.
The Arab-Israeli conflict has had several significant impacts:
It has been a major source of instability in the Middle East.
It has contributed to the rise of both secular Arab nationalism and Islamist movements.
It has complicated Muslim-Western relations, feeding into narratives of a "clash of civilizations."
It has been used by various regimes to deflect attention from domestic issues.
Efforts at peace, including the Oslo Accords of the 1990s, have so far failed to resolve the core issues of the conflict. The situation remains one of the most intractable problems in international relations and a source of ongoing tension in the Muslim world.
The Iranian Revolution and the Rise of Political Islam
The 1979 Iranian Revolution marked a watershed moment in modern Islamic history. Led by Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, the revolution overthrew the pro-Western Shah and established an Islamic Republic. This was the first time in the modern era that Islamists had successfully taken power in a major country.
The Iranian Revolution had several significant impacts:
It demonstrated the potential of political Islam as a revolutionary force.
It challenged both the Western-backed monarchies of the Gulf and the secular nationalist regimes elsewhere in the Muslim world.
It exacerbated the Sunni-Shia divide, as Sunni-majority countries feared the spread of Iran's Shia revolutionary ideology.
It dramatically altered Iran's relationship with the West, particularly the United States.
The success of the Iranian Revolution inspired Islamist movements elsewhere, although most followed Sunni rather than Shia interpretations of Islam. These movements gained strength in many countries, offering an Islamic alternative to both Western-style democracy and secular authoritarianism.
The rise of political Islam was fueled by several factors:
Disillusionment with secular nationalist regimes that had failed to deliver economic prosperity or political freedom.
The perceived moral and spiritual vacuum left by rapid modernization and Westernization.
The appeal of Islam as an authentic, indigenous ideology in the face of Western cultural influence.
In some cases, funding and support from oil-rich Gulf states.
Different Islamist movements adopted different strategies, ranging from participation in electoral politics to armed struggle. Their rise posed significant challenges to existing political orders in many Muslim-majority countries and complicated their relations with the West.
The Afghan-Soviet War and the Rise of Jihadism
The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 led to another pivotal development in the Muslim world: the rise of modern jihadism. The Afghan resistance to Soviet occupation was framed as a jihad, or holy war, attracting Muslim volunteers from around the world.
This conflict had several important consequences:
It popularized the idea of transnational jihad, with Muslims from various countries fighting together against a common enemy.
It led to the formation of international networks of jihadists, which would later evolve into groups like Al-Qaeda.
It was seen by many Muslims as a successful jihad against a superpower, boosting the confidence of Islamist movements.
It contributed to the fall of the Soviet Union, changing the global balance of power.
The United States and its allies supported the Afghan mujahideen as part of their Cold War strategy against the Soviet Union. This included not only military aid but also ideological support, with Islamic resistance to communism encouraged through propaganda and education programs.
However, after the Soviet withdrawal and the end of the Cold War, Afghanistan descended into civil war. Eventually, the Taliban, a radical Islamist group, took control of most of the country. They provided a base for Al-Qaeda, leading eventually to the 9/11 attacks and the subsequent U.S.-led invasion of Afghanistan.
The legacy of the Afghan-Soviet war continues to shape events in the Muslim world and beyond:
It contributed to the spread of militant Islamist ideologies.
It left Afghanistan devastated and unstable, with repercussions for the entire region.
It created a cadre of experienced jihadist fighters who went on to participate in conflicts in other parts of the world.
It set the stage for ongoing U.S. military involvement in the region.
The Gulf Wars and Their Impact
The Gulf Wars - the Iran-Iraq War (1980-1988), the Gulf War (1990-1991), and the Iraq War (2003-2011) - have had profound impacts on the Muslim world, particularly the Middle East.
The Iran-Iraq War, coming soon after the Iranian Revolution, was one of the longest and bloodiest conflicts of the 20th century. It heightened Sunni-Shia tensions and drew in outside powers, with most Arab states and Western countries supporting Iraq against Iran.
The Gulf War, triggered by Iraq's invasion of Kuwait, saw a U.S.-led coalition forcibly expel Iraqi forces from Kuwait. This war had several significant consequences:
It led to a permanent U.S. military presence in the Gulf region, including in Saudi Arabia - a development that angered many Muslims.
It demonstrated the overwhelming military superiority of the United States.
It contributed to the rise of Osama bin Laden and Al-Qaeda, who opposed the presence of non-Muslim troops in Saudi Arabia, home to Islam's holiest sites.
The 2003 Iraq War, which led to the overthrow of Saddam Hussein's regime, has had far-reaching effects:
It removed a powerful Sunni-led government, shifting the balance of power in the region and exacerbating sectarian tensions.
It led to a prolonged U.S. occupation, fueling anti-American sentiment in the Muslim world.
The chaos following the invasion created conditions for the rise of extremist groups, eventually leading to the emergence of ISIS.
It heightened concerns about Western intentions in the Muslim world, with many seeing it as part of a broader attack on Islam.
These conflicts have reshaped the political landscape of the Middle East, altered the balance of power between Sunni and Shia communities, and deeply affected Muslim attitudes towards the West, particularly the United States.
The Arab Spring and Its Aftermath
The Arab Spring, a series of pro-democracy uprisings that swept across several Arab countries starting in 2010, initially seemed to herald a new era of political change in the Muslim world. Beginning with protests in Tunisia that led to the ousting of long-time president Zine El Abidine Ben Ali, the movement spread to Egypt, Libya, Syria, Yemen, and other countries.
The initial phase of the Arab Spring was marked by hope and optimism. In Egypt, the region's most populous country, massive protests led to the fall of President Hosni Mubarak, who had ruled for three decades. Free elections were held, bringing the Muslim Brotherhood, an Islamist group, to power.
However, the outcomes of the Arab Spring have been mixed and often disappointing:
In Egypt, the elected Islamist government was overthrown by the military after just one year, leading to an even more authoritarian regime.
Libya and Yemen descended into civil war following the fall of their long-time rulers.
Syria's uprising against the Assad regime turned into a protracted and devastating civil war, drawing in regional and global powers.
Only Tunisia, where the movement began, has maintained a fragile democracy.
The Arab Spring and its aftermath have had several significant impacts:
They demonstrated the deep desire for political change and accountability in many Arab societies.
They highlighted the tensions between secular and Islamist visions for society.
They exposed the fragility of many Arab states and the deep sectarian and tribal divisions within them.
They led to a period of heightened instability in the region, creating conditions that extremist groups like ISIS were able to exploit.
They resulted in a backlash in some countries, with regimes cracking down on dissent and civil society.
The mixed results of the Arab Spring have led to disillusionment in many quarters, but the underlying issues of political repression, economic stagnation, and social inequality that sparked the uprisings remain largely unresolved.
Conclusion: The Muslim World Today
As we conclude our journey through Islamic history, it's clear that the Muslim world today faces numerous challenges and opportunities. The legacy of colonialism, the impact of modernization, ongoing conflicts, and the struggle between tradition and change continue to shape Muslim societies.
Some key issues facing the Muslim world today include:
Political instability and authoritarianism in many countries.
Economic challenges, including high youth unemployment in many Arab countries.
Sectarian tensions, particularly between Sunni and Shia communities.
The threat of extremist groups that claim to act in the name of Islam.
Debates about the role of Islam in public life and governance.
The impact of globalization on traditional cultures and values.
Ongoing conflicts, including in Syria, Yemen, and between Israel and the Palestinians.
At the same time, there are also positive developments:
A growing middle class in many Muslim-majority countries.
Increasing levels of education, particularly among women.
Vibrant debates about Islam's role in the modern world.
The emergence of Muslim minorities as significant communities in many Western countries, leading to new forms of Islamic thought and practice.
Technological innovations that are connecting Muslims globally and enabling new forms of religious expression and community.
The story of Islam and the Muslim world is far from over. As it has throughout its history, Islam continues to adapt to new circumstances while maintaining its core principles. The challenges facing Muslim societies are significant, but so too is the resilience and creativity of Muslim communities around the world.
Understanding this long and complex history is crucial for anyone seeking to comprehend the contemporary Muslim world and its relationships with other civilizations. The Islamic world's past - its glories and its tragedies, its achievements and its struggles - continues to shape its present and will undoubtedly influence its future.