Fifth Sun Summary

"History is written by the victors"—but what of those whose voices were silenced? Camilla Townsend's Fifth Sun explores the overlooked, intricate story of the Mexica, revealing their history as told by their own people.

1. The Mexica Were Active Participants in Recording History

The Mexica, commonly known as the Aztecs, actively preserved their history long before Spanish colonization. They implemented an organized tradition known as "xiuhpohualli."

The xiuhpohualli practice involved yearly ceremonies where locals relayed events from battles to natural phenomena to dedicated priests. These stories were recorded with symbols and pictures. This practice enabled the Mexica to maintain a comprehensive understanding of their collective past while connecting it to their cultural beliefs.

The oral recounting in xiuhpohualli often included tales of their ancestors’ migration to the Mexico Valley. These stories emphasized the Mexica's identity as a people who overcame incredible challenges to settle in their homeland, where they flourished into an influential civilization.

Examples

• The word "xiuhpohualli" in Nahuatl means a yearly collection and preservation of events.
• Pictographs served as the primary medium for preserving records, marking milestones like wars or emperors' reigns.
• The Mexica chronicled their history of migration from lands in the north into the Mexico Valley.

2. Tenochtitlan: From Humble Beginnings to a Thriving City

The origins of Tenochtitlan demonstrate the determination and innovation of the Mexica people.

When the Mexica arrived in the fertile Valley of Mexico, the viable land was taken. They settled on an island in Lake Texcoco and constructed Tenochtitlan almost from scratch. They developed agricultural techniques like building floating gardens, or chinampas, to compensate for a lack of fertile soil, ensuring a sustainable food supply.

Through strategic political marriages, the Mexica solidified relationships with neighboring city-states. Their influence grew, transforming their city into an awe-inspiring hub with grand pyramids, bustling markets, and cultural vibrancy.

Examples

• Chinampas provided fertile garden spaces above swampy waters.
• Marriages between Mexica nobility and surrounding city-states ensured alliances and peace.
• By the 15th century, Tenochtitlan housed painted pyramids, libraries, and thriving marketplaces.

3. The Political System and Symbolic Sacrifices

Stability in the empire came at a cost: a system that relied heavily on extracting tributes and utilizing rituals as political power.

Conquered peoples were often required to provide their goods and labor to support the Mexica elite. Public rituals, such as human sacrifices, were more than religious acts. These ceremonies sent powerful messages to subjugated rivals and affirmed Mexica dominance.

The Spaniards later labeled these sacrifices as barbaric, but their purpose was both symbolic and practical. They warned rebellious territories to stay in line and demonstrated the consequences of defiance.

Examples

• Prisoners of war were sacrificed after victories as a show of power.
• Tributes from conquered regions supported Tenochtitlan's economy.
• Public executions reinforced the political authority of the Mexica empire.

4. Malinche: A Complex Figure in History

Malinche, an enslaved woman, played a life-altering role as an interpreter between the Spanish and the indigenous people.

She began her life as a servant under foreign rulers after her enslavement. Her fate changed when her captors offered her to Hernán Cortés, the Spanish conquistador. As she collaborated with the Spaniards, Malinche used her knowledge of indigenous languages—Mayan and Nahuatl—to forge influential connections.

Seen now as both a traitor and a figure of survival, Malinche viewed the Mexica as oppressors, not allies. Her personal history reflected the tangled and painful loyalties that emerged as indigenous civilizations confronted outsiders.

Examples

• Malinche served as Cortés’s chief interpreter, bridging communication gaps.
• She had been forced into servitude by the Chontal prior to encountering the Spaniards.
• Malinche worked alongside Jerónimo de Aguilar, Cortés’s other interpreter.

5. Spanish Conquest Reveals Uneven Technological Development

The Spanish conquest exposed a technological imbalance between the Mexica and the European invaders.

The Spaniards brought metal weapons, armor, and horses—none of which existed in the Americas. Despite the sophistication of Mexica political and cultural systems, their weapons were outmatched by Spanish resources developed over centuries of Eurasian customs and innovations.

Cultural values also framed war differently: while the Mexica aimed to capture prisoners for tribute or sacrifice, the Spanish fought to eliminate their enemies entirely, intensifying the conflict.

Examples

• The Spanish deployed cannons, swords, and horses against stone-tipped arrows.
• Mexica military strategies focused on capture rather than destruction.
• The Spanish had a 7,000-year head start in technological advances.

6. Moctezuma’s Leadership During Crisis

Moctezuma, the Mexica emperor, initially sought to gather information rather than immediately antagonize the Spanish.

When Cortés and his men entered Tenochtitlan as "guests," Moctezuma welcomed them to maintain the peace while studying their intentions. However, events spiraled out of his control when Cortés kidnapped the emperor to ensure political leverage.

Moctezuma's eventual appeals for surrender fell on deaf ears. The Mexica refused to stop fighting, but they also faced an unprecedented challenge: a smallpox epidemic that would ravage their population.

Examples

• Moctezuma allowed Cortés to stay in a palace to monitor the Spaniards.
• The Mexica cut causeways to starve the Spanish invaders.
• Smallpox decimated the Mexica even as they resisted.

7. Smallpox as an Unseen Agent of Destruction

The introduction of smallpox inflicted devastating losses upon the Mexica, who had no immunity.

As more than a quarter of Tenochtitlan's population succumbed to the disease within two months, panic spread. Neighboring tribes, observing the chaos, began shifting allegiances to the Spanish, fearing the epidemic and the strength of European forces.

Without their usual numbers and leadership to resist, the Mexica were left vulnerable. Smallpox essentially weakened the structure of their society, leaving Tenochtitlan open to conquest.

Examples

• Smallpox killed 200,000 within weeks.
• Conquered tribes switched alliances due to the disease’s impact.
• The outbreak disrupted Mexica governance during Cortés’s return.

8. The Cultural Erasure Imposed by Colonization

The Spanish sought to replace the Mexica’s traditions with European culture and Christianity.

Catholic friars arrived to eliminate indigenous practices, initially working to convert leaders like don Alonso Chimalpopoca. Over time, they trained younger generations to adopt Spanish ways, ensuring the transition to colonial rule.

History, religion, and knowledge—once vibrant aspects of Mexica life—were suppressed to align with European worldviews. Some indigenous leaders, however, cleverly adapted Latin script to preserve Nahuatl records.

Examples

• Catholic friars burned Mexica sacred texts and built churches on sacred sites.
• Don Alonso’s children learned Spanish and Latin for political survival.
• Indigenous records were rewritten phonetically in Latin script.

9. The Legacy That Lives On

Despite centuries of oppression, the Mexica’s descendants continue to honor and reclaim their heritage.

Nahuatl survives as an active language, spoken by nearly two million people. Modern efforts to document indigenous history, poetry, and scholarship celebrate a resilient culture that endures under a so-called "Sixth Sun."

Far from disappearing, the spirit of the Mexica remains alive through language, art, and collective memory.

Examples

• Contemporary Nahuatl-speaking poets write about their identity.
• Aztec history is now taught with perspectives that include indigenous voices.
• Ceremonies, traditions, and even the Mexica calendar are referenced today.

Takeaways

1. Seek out and amplify local perspectives when studying history to understand diverse narratives.
2. Learn or support endangered indigenous languages, such as Nahuatl, to preserve cultural heritage.
3. Reflect on how cultural exchange and conquest shape modern identities, and critically question histories written by colonizers.