Introduction
History is often told from the perspective of the victors, leaving out crucial voices and experiences. This is particularly true when it comes to the story of indigenous peoples in the Americas. For centuries, the narrative of the Aztec civilization has been dominated by European accounts, painting a distorted picture of their culture, achievements, and downfall.
In "Fifth Sun," Camilla Townsend challenges these long-held misconceptions by delving into historical records written by the Aztecs themselves. Through meticulous research, she presents a revised and more accurate account of Aztec history, shedding light on their remarkable journey from a small tribe to one of the world's most impressive civilizations.
This book not only recounts the events surrounding the Spanish conquest but also explores the rich tapestry of Aztec life, culture, and resilience in the face of European imperialism. It reveals that despite the brutality of colonization, the Aztec people were never truly defeated. Today, their legacy lives on through the 1.5 million people who still speak their language and the countless others who proudly claim Aztec ancestry.
The Preservation of History
One of the most fascinating aspects of Aztec culture was their dedication to recording and preserving their history. The Mexica, as the Aztecs called themselves, had a specific word for this process: xiuhpohualli, which means "the yearly collecting of history into annals."
Every year, communities would gather for xiuhpohualli ceremonies. During these events, individuals would come forward to share their accounts of the past year's events. Priests would then collect these stories and archive them using pictographic symbols. These symbols represented significant occurrences such as the rise and fall of emperors, important wars, and natural phenomena.
But xiuhpohualli wasn't just about recent history. It also served as an opportunity for elders to recount ancient tales passed down through generations. Around campfires, they would share stories of their ancestors' migration from distant northern lands, trekking across mountains and deserts to reach their current home in the Valley of Mexico.
These oral traditions preserved the memory of major events that shaped their people's journey. The Mexica were aware of at least four great wars and famines that drove their ancestors southward. This historical knowledge formed the basis of their religious beliefs, centered around the idea that the universe had been destroyed four times before, and they were now living in the era of the "Fifth Sun."
The Rise of Tenochtitlan
The Mexica were among the last groups to arrive in the fertile Mexico Valley. With most of the prime land already occupied, they settled on a small island in Lake Texcoco. This humble beginning would eventually grow into the magnificent city of Tenochtitlan.
Faced with limited land, the Mexica demonstrated remarkable ingenuity. They began creating artificial land by piling mud and silt in the swampy waters surrounding their island. Using straw and wood to trap the earth, they slowly expanded their territory, creating a network of raised fields known as chinampas. These floating gardens not only provided additional agricultural space but also allowed the city to grow beyond its natural boundaries.
As Tenochtitlan expanded, so did its political influence. The Mexica employed a clever strategy of forging alliances through polygamous marriages with the nobility of surrounding city-states. These marital unions served multiple purposes: preventing or initiating wars, strengthening economic ties, and uniting powerful dynasties.
By the late 15th century, Tenochtitlan had transformed into a breathtaking metropolis. Its painted pyramids could be seen from miles away, dominating the landscape. The city boasted a vast library containing hundreds of books filled with intricate pictographs detailing Mexica history. Music and dance filled the streets, while its sprawling marketplace attracted tens of thousands of visitors daily.
The Price of Empire
The rise of the Aztec Empire, however, came at a cost. The Mexica's expansion and dominance relied on extracting tribute from conquered peoples and occasionally performing public sacrifices of prisoners. While Spanish accounts later portrayed these sacrifices as barbaric acts solely meant to please indigenous gods, the reality was far more complex and politically motivated.
For instance, after a military victory over a rebelling neighbor, the sacrifice of prisoners of war served as a powerful public statement. News of these events would spread far and wide, effectively keeping potential enemies in check. It was a brutal but effective method of maintaining control over a vast and diverse empire.
By the early 16th century, the Aztec Empire had established relative stability throughout the Mexico Valley. Its population of around five million people lived in a state of peace and prosperity. However, this period of calm would soon be shattered by the arrival of a force from across the ocean that would forever change the course of Mesoamerican history.
The Arrival of the Spanish
The stability achieved by the Mexica came with its own set of challenges. Many conquered peoples harbored resentment towards their Aztec rulers. After a city-state was captured, the daughters of its chief would often be divided up. Those born to more powerful wives were sent to Tenochtitlan to marry unmarried princes, while daughters of lower-ranking wives were frequently sold into slavery.
One such enslaved woman was Malinche, who would play a crucial role in the events that followed. Malinche's life took an unexpected turn when strange warriors arrived on huge boats and defeated her masters in battle. As part of the tribute offered to these newcomers, Malinche was handed over to the Spanish.
In her new role, Malinche befriended the Spanish interpreter, Jerónimo de Aguilar. Aguilar had been held captive by Mayans for eight years after a shipwreck, during which time he learned the Mayan language. This allowed Malinche to communicate with him easily.
Aguilar explained to Malinche that these newcomers came from a land across the ocean. He described the recent battle between the Spanish and the indigenous people, highlighting the technological advantages that allowed the Spanish to triumph despite being vastly outnumbered. The Spanish possessed powerful metal weapons and armor that could withstand stone arrows. They also rode horses, animals ten times stronger than deer, giving them unprecedented speed and power in battle.
The Spanish expedition was led by Hernán Cortés, who had heard rumors of a wealthy nation to the west of Mayan lands. Cortés was determined to find and conquer this nation, seeking riches and fame back in Spain.
As Cortés and his party entered Mexica territory, they encountered a small Mexica delegation. It was here that Malinche's role became crucial. When Aguilar found himself unable to communicate in Nahuatl, the Mexica language, Malinche stepped forward to interpret. Her ability to bridge the language gap would prove instrumental in the events that followed.
It's important to note that while Malinche is often portrayed as a traitor in modern narratives, her actions must be understood within the context of her time. The concept of a unified "indigenous" identity didn't exist then. To Malinche, the Mexica were the conquerors who had enslaved her people. Her decision to assist the newcomers was not a betrayal of a broader indigenous cause but a choice made based on her personal circumstances and loyalties.
The Encounter with Moctezuma
As news of the Spanish arrival spread, Moctezuma, the Mexica emperor, faced a difficult decision. These strangers were causing unrest among his neighbors and threatening regional stability. After careful consideration, Moctezuma decided to grant Cortés the meeting he desired.
When the two leaders finally met at the gates of Tenochtitlan, gifts were exchanged, and Moctezuma offered the hospitality of his city to the Spanish. This was a strategic move on Moctezuma's part, allowing him to learn more about these powerful newcomers and identify their weaknesses.
The Spanish were awestruck by the grandeur of Tenochtitlan. Cortés, in particular, could hardly believe his luck, envisioning the wealth he could plunder and the fame he would achieve back in Spain. The Spanish were given accommodations in the palace of a former emperor and treated as honored guests for several months.
During this time, Moctezuma gathered intelligence on the Spaniards. However, the situation took a dramatic turn when Moctezuma received news of thirteen new Spanish ships arriving. Realizing the gravity of the situation, he ordered his people to prepare for war. Cortés, however, acted swiftly and had Moctezuma kidnapped and taken to the Spanish quarters, threatening to execute him if any rescue attempt was made.
The Battle for Tenochtitlan
The Mexica launched the first attack, attempting to breach the Spanish fortress. After days of fighting and failed rescue attempts, Moctezuma was sent to address his people from the fortress walls. He urged them to lay down their arms, recognizing the hopelessness of the situation given the technological superiority of the Spanish and the news of reinforcements on the way.
However, his people refused to heed his words. Instead, they chose to starve out the Spaniards by destroying the causeways connecting the island to the mainland, effectively trapping them.
This strategy proved effective, forcing Cortés to plan a nighttime escape using wooden planks as makeshift bridges. Before leaving, the Spanish decided to kill Moctezuma, hoping to leave the Mexica without a leader to rally around.
As the Spanish attempted their escape across the lake, they were ambushed by Mexica warriors in canoes. The ensuing battle was a massacre. Most of the makeshift bridges were destroyed, and the Spanish and their allies faced a barrage of arrows and spears. By the end of the night, more than two-thirds of the Spanish forces and their horses were dead, many drowning under the weight of their armor or the gold they attempted to carry.
While the Mexica celebrated their victory, their joy was short-lived. The city entered a period of mourning for Moctezuma, and an invisible enemy left behind by the Spanish was about to wreak havoc on the population.
The Devastation of Smallpox
Unbeknownst to the Mexica, the Spanish had inadvertently introduced smallpox to Tenochtitlan. This disease, to which the indigenous population had no immunity, spread rapidly through the city. Within two months of their victory against the Spanish, more than a quarter of Tenochtitlan's population had perished from the epidemic.
The impact of smallpox extended beyond Tenochtitlan, affecting neighboring states as well. As these communities grappled with the outbreak, they also received news of thousands of Spanish reinforcements on their way. The realization dawned that even the mighty Mexica would be unable to withstand such a formidable force.
The Spanish Conquest and Its Aftermath
With reinforcements, Cortés returned and took control of Tenochtitlan. The brutality of the conquest was severe. Indigenous leaders were tortured for information about hidden gold, and prisoners of war were branded as slaves and sent to the Caribbean to be sold. Women were not spared, with many forced into prostitution. The situation became so dire that two years into the new colonial regime, the Spanish King issued a proclamation ordering his conquistadors to curb their excesses, particularly the sexual enslavement of indigenous women.
As the violence gradually decreased, Cortés divided the conquered territories into fiefdoms, gifting them to his conquistadors. The indigenous inhabitants were required to pay tribute to their new Spanish lords and provide regular manual labor. This labor was immediately put to use in Tenochtitlan, where a new city was to be built on top of the ruins, renamed Ciudad de México, or Mexico City.
The Arrival of the Friars
The 1520s saw an influx of Europeans, including Catholic friars whose mission was to eradicate the indigenous religion and replace it with Christianity. Initially, the friars attempted to convince indigenous chiefs to change their ways, but with little success. Some chiefs, like don Alonso Chimalpopoca, chose to convert to maintain their position and keep the peace.
Failing to convince the older generation, the friars turned their attention to the sons of the chiefs. They believed that by indoctrinating the younger generation, they could effect lasting change. Don Alonso's son, Cristóbal, was one of these young men sent to missionary school. He returned three years later fluent in Spanish, able to write in Latin, and devoted to Christianity.
Preserving Indigenous History
Cristóbal's newfound skills, particularly his ability to write using the Latin alphabet, fascinated his father, don Alonso. Cristóbal explained that Latin letters could be understood by millions of people worldwide, unlike the indigenous pictographic symbols that only a select few could interpret. This realization inspired don Alonso to embark on an ambitious project: writing a history of his people.
Don Alonso gathered other elders to recount their stories, while Cristóbal and other educated youths transcribed them using Latin letters but writing phonetically in Nahuatl. This work served multiple purposes. On a practical level, it could function as a record of land ownership arrangements, useful in the new Spanish legal system. More profoundly, it was an attempt to preserve the fading memories of their culture and history.
Don Alonso recognized that the younger generation, like his son, was rapidly losing touch with their heritage. He also observed that ordinary people, struggling with extreme poverty under colonial rule, had little time or energy to pass down historical knowledge to their children. By creating a written record, he hoped to ensure that the history and culture of his people would not be lost to time.
The Legacy of the Aztecs
The foresight of don Alonso and others like him who took the initiative to write down their history proved to be partially successful. As predicted, subsequent generations lost the ability to read the ancient pictographs, and by the 18th century, the tradition of collecting yearly annals had disappeared. Much of the rich history of the Mexica and their neighbors faded into myth.
However, the indigenous people of the Mexico Valley did not vanish. They continued to speak their native languages and maintained an awareness of their descent from a great civilization, even as centuries passed.
Today, don Alonso would be heartened to know that nearly two million people still speak Nahuatl. While many still face poverty and marginalization, others have found success in academia, writing, researching, and teaching in their ancestral language. Some indigenous poets even write about living under the "Sixth Sun," continuing the cyclical worldview of their ancestors.
Conclusion
"Fifth Sun" by Camilla Townsend offers a groundbreaking perspective on Aztec history, challenging long-held misconceptions and providing a more nuanced understanding of this remarkable civilization. By drawing on indigenous sources and presenting the Aztec story through their own words, Townsend brings to life the complexities of Mexica society, their impressive achievements, and their resilience in the face of conquest and colonization.
The book highlights several key themes:
The importance of indigenous historical records: The Aztecs' dedication to preserving their history through both oral traditions and written accounts played a crucial role in maintaining their cultural identity, even in the face of colonial oppression.
The complexity of Aztec society: Far from being simple "barbarians," the Mexica built a sophisticated civilization with advanced agricultural techniques, complex political systems, and rich cultural traditions.
The impact of disease on the conquest: The devastating effects of smallpox on the indigenous population played a significant role in the Spanish conquest, highlighting the multifaceted nature of this historical event.
The resilience of indigenous culture: Despite centuries of colonization and attempts at cultural erasure, the descendants of the Aztecs have managed to preserve aspects of their language, culture, and identity.
The importance of revisiting historical narratives: Townsend's work demonstrates the value of re-examining historical accounts, especially those written by the colonized, to gain a more accurate and balanced understanding of the past.
"Fifth Sun" serves as a powerful reminder that history is complex and multifaceted. It challenges readers to look beyond simplistic narratives of conquest and consider the enduring legacy of indigenous civilizations. By giving voice to the Aztecs through their own historical records, Townsend not only provides a more accurate account of their past but also highlights the ongoing resilience and cultural contributions of their descendants in modern-day Mexico.
This revised history of the Aztecs offers valuable insights into the nature of empire, the impact of cross-cultural encounters, and the enduring power of cultural memory. It stands as a testament to the importance of preserving and studying indigenous histories, not just for a more accurate understanding of the past, but also for fostering greater cultural appreciation and respect in our increasingly interconnected world.