In "First Principles," Thomas E. Ricks takes us on a fascinating journey through the minds of America's founding fathers, exploring how the classical works of ancient Greece and Rome shaped their vision for a new nation. This book offers a unique perspective on the intellectual foundations of the United States, revealing how the founders drew inspiration from the wisdom of the ancients to create a revolutionary system of government.
While today's American education system may not emphasize Greek and Roman classics, their influence can still be seen in many aspects of modern American life. From the classical architecture of Washington, DC, to the very names of political parties, the legacy of the ancient world continues to shape the United States in subtle but significant ways.
Ricks argues that understanding the classical influences on the founding fathers is crucial for contemporary Americans seeking to reconnect with their nation's core principles. By examining how figures like George Washington, John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, and James Madison interpreted and applied the lessons of antiquity, we can gain valuable insights into the ideals that shaped the American experiment in democracy.
The Roman Republic as a Model for Revolutionary America
The Concept of Virtue in the Founding Era
One of the most striking examples of classical influence on the founders is their understanding of the concept of virtue. In modern times, we often associate virtue with morality or female chastity. However, for the founding fathers, virtue had a distinctly different meaning rooted in ancient Roman thought.
To the founders, virtue meant public-mindedness – the quality of putting the common good before self-interest. This concept was so central to their thinking that the word "virtue" appears about six thousand times in the compilation of Revolutionary-era writings in the US National Archives, even more frequently than the word "freedom."
The Primacy of Roman Thought
While modern education often emphasizes Greek authors like Homer, Plato, and Herodotus, the founding fathers were more deeply influenced by Roman thinkers. They viewed the Romans as exemplars of successful republican government, while often considering the Greeks as somewhat unstable and flighty.
For instance, the Roman statesman Cicero, often dismissed today as pompous, was greatly admired by the founders for his oratorical skills and leadership. Alexander Hamilton, writing in The Federalist Papers, praised the Roman Republic as having "attained to the utmost height of human greatness."
Learning from Rome's Downfall
The founders were not only inspired by Rome's successes but also sought to learn from its eventual decline. They carefully studied the factors that led to the erosion of the Roman Republic, hoping to avoid similar pitfalls in their new nation.
However, this admiration for Rome also had its downsides. Some founders used classical theories to justify the practice of slavery, viewing it as a natural part of the social order. This demonstrates that while the founders created a republic that has continued to expand rights over time, they were also products of their era with significant flaws.
George Washington: The American Cincinnatus
Washington's Classical Education on the Battlefield
Unlike many of his fellow founders who received formal university educations, George Washington's schooling came primarily through his military experiences. His first major combat experience during the French and Indian War taught him valuable lessons about leadership and strategy.
Learning from Defeat
Washington's early military career was marked by significant defeats, including a humiliating loss under the command of British General Edward Braddock. These experiences profoundly affected Washington, teaching him the dangers of arrogance and the importance of adaptability in military leadership.
Embodying Roman Virtues
As commander of the Continental Army during the Revolutionary War, Washington strove to embody the virtues of great Roman leaders. He particularly admired the Roman general Fabius, known for his cautious and strategic approach to warfare.
Like Fabius, who defeated Hannibal not through direct confrontation but by wearing down his opponent, Washington adopted a strategy of attrition against the British. He focused on denying the enemy decisive victories, cutting off their resources, and slowly exhausting their will to fight.
The American Cincinnatus
After the war, Washington further demonstrated his commitment to Roman ideals by voluntarily relinquishing power. Instead of becoming a military dictator, he chose to follow the example of Cincinnatus, a Roman leader who gave up his authority and returned to his farm after leading Rome to victory.
This act of self-restraint deeply impressed his contemporaries and cemented Washington's reputation as a true embodiment of republican virtue. It set a crucial precedent for the peaceful transfer of power that would become a hallmark of American democracy.
John Adams: The American Cicero
Adams' Admiration for Cicero
John Adams, the second President of the United States, was particularly enamored with the Roman orator and statesman Cicero. Adams saw many parallels between himself and Cicero, both having risen from relatively humble beginnings to positions of great influence through their intellect and eloquence.
Shared Virtues and Flaws
Adams and Cicero shared not only admirable qualities but also significant flaws, particularly their vanity. Just as Cicero was known for his love of praise, Adams was overly sensitive to criticism. This sensitivity would later manifest in problematic ways during his presidency, including the imprisonment of newspaper editors who criticized him.
Adams' Revolutionary Ideas
Despite his flaws, Adams played a crucial role in the lead-up to the American Revolution. He was among the first to call for independence, publishing influential essays that argued for the God-given right to liberty. These writings helped shape public opinion in Boston and beyond, laying the intellectual groundwork for the coming revolution.
The Challenge of the Presidency
As President, Adams faced significant challenges, particularly in dealing with growing partisanship. His inability to handle criticism effectively and his harsh measures against opposition press damaged his popularity and ultimately contributed to his defeat after one term.
However, Adams did succeed in one crucial aspect: he oversaw the first peaceful transition of power in the young republic, setting an important precedent for American democracy.
Thomas Jefferson: The Epicurean Founder
Jefferson's Greek Inspiration
Thomas Jefferson stood out among the founders for his stronger affinity for Greek rather than Roman thought. His commonplace book, a kind of personal diary, was filled with quotations from Greek authors, particularly the tragedian Euripides.
The Influence of Epicurus
While Epicurus doesn't appear in Jefferson's early writings, the Greek philosopher's ideas would later have a profound impact on his thinking. Jefferson interpreted Epicureanism not as mere hedonism, but as a philosophy centered on virtue, happiness, and the public good.
The Declaration of Independence
Jefferson's Epicurean influence is evident in the Declaration of Independence, particularly in its famous phrase "life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness." By using "happiness" instead of "property" (as in John Locke's formulation), Jefferson emphasized a more optimistic and inclusive vision for the new nation.
Jefferson's Presidency and Beyond
As President, Jefferson continued to be guided by his interpretation of Epicurean principles. However, he also began to move away from the strict classicism of the founding era, embracing a more emotional and Romantic worldview that would become increasingly prevalent in the 19th century.
James Madison: Enlightenment Classicist
The Scottish Enlightenment Connection
James Madison's classical education was heavily influenced by the Scottish Enlightenment, a period of intellectual flourishing in Scotland that coincided with America's founding era. At Princeton, Madison studied under Scottish professors who introduced him to a wide range of classical and Enlightenment thinkers.
Montesquieu and the Problem of Factions
Madison was particularly influenced by the French philosopher Montesquieu, who argued that republics could only function in small nations. This presented a significant challenge for the founders of a large and diverse country like the United States.
The Federalist Papers and the Constitution
In response to this challenge, Madison developed innovative ideas about government structure and the management of factions. In the Federalist Papers and the Constitution, he laid out a system of checks and balances designed to prevent any one group from dominating the others.
Madison's solution to the problem of factionalism was counterintuitive: he argued for a large national republic, believing that the diversity of interests in a large nation would make it difficult for any single faction to gain too much power.
Madison's Presidency and the Decline of Classicism
During Madison's presidency, the strict classicism of the founding era began to wane. As the nation faced new challenges and partisan divisions deepened, the ideals of ancient Rome and Greece seemed increasingly distant from the realities of American political life.
The Decline of American Classicism
The Challenge of Partisanship
As the new nation grew and developed, the founders' classical framework proved inadequate for understanding the realities of American politics. The concept of "loyal opposition" had not yet developed, and the Federalists, in particular, struggled to accept the legitimacy of political disagreement.
The Adams Presidency and Its Aftermath
John Adams' presidency marked a turning point in the decline of American classicism. His harsh reactions to criticism and attempts to suppress opposition demonstrated the limitations of the founders' vision of a government led by virtuous men above partisan concerns.
Jefferson and Madison: A New Direction
Thomas Jefferson's presidency marked a shift away from strict classicism. In his inaugural address, he acknowledged the reality of partisan divisions while affirming the equal rights of all citizens regardless of their political views.
The Romantic Turn
As the 19th century progressed, reason and rationality gave way to emotion and romanticism in American culture. Classicism began to be seen as elitist and out of touch with the realities of American life.
The Legacy of Slavery
The continued existence of slavery in the United States increasingly came to be seen as incompatible with the founding principles of freedom and equality. This contradiction further undermined the credibility of the founders' classical vision.
Conclusion: The Enduring Relevance of First Principles
While American classicism may have declined from its prominence in the founding era, the principles and ideals that inspired the founders continue to shape American political life. Understanding the classical influences on the founding fathers can provide valuable insights for contemporary Americans grappling with the challenges of maintaining a healthy democracy.
The Importance of Virtue and Public-Mindedness
Although the term "virtue" may have lost its original meaning, the concept of putting the public good before self-interest remains crucial for a well-functioning democracy. Citizens can honor this founding principle by actively participating in local government, engaging in respectful debate, and holding leaders accountable to fundamental American values.
Balancing Individual Rights and the Common Good
The founders grappled with the tension between individual liberty and the needs of the community, a balance that remains at the heart of many political debates today. Revisiting their thoughts on this issue can provide valuable perspective for addressing contemporary challenges.
The Ongoing Experiment of American Democracy
The American system of government, as envisioned by the founders, was always intended to be an ongoing experiment. Each generation must reinterpret and apply the nation's founding principles to meet the challenges of their time.
Learning from History
By studying how the founders drew inspiration from classical sources and applied those lessons to their own era, we can learn to think more critically about our own political and social challenges. This historical perspective can help us avoid repeating past mistakes and find innovative solutions to contemporary problems.
The Importance of Education
The founders' deep engagement with classical texts highlights the importance of a well-rounded education for effective citizenship. While the specific content of that education may change over time, the need for citizens to be well-informed and capable of critical thinking remains constant.
Embracing Complexity
The story of the founders and their classical influences reminds us that history is complex and often contradictory. The same thinkers who articulated lofty ideals of freedom and equality also justified the practice of slavery. Understanding this complexity can help us approach current issues with nuance and humility.
The Power of Ideas
Finally, "First Principles" demonstrates the enduring power of ideas to shape societies. The founders' engagement with classical thought led to the creation of a new form of government that has influenced the world for over two centuries. This serves as a reminder of the potential for thoughtful, principled leadership to create positive change.
In conclusion, while we may no longer live in the classical world of the founding fathers, the principles they derived from their study of ancient Greece and Rome continue to offer valuable guidance for navigating the challenges of modern democracy. By reconnecting with these first principles, Americans can gain a deeper understanding of their nation's foundations and work towards a more perfect union.