First Principles Summary

America didn’t just invent itself; it borrowed heavily from the wisdom – and mistakes – of ancient Greece and Rome. What can we learn today by revisiting these foundations?

Revolutionary Americans and the Power of Roman Republican Ideals

Revolutionary Americans deeply admired the ideals of the Roman Republic, using it as a model for their new government. To them, Rome symbolized great human achievement in governance while embodying the concept of virtue – prioritizing the public good over personal gain. This ideal wasn’t simply admired but became a cornerstone of their vision for the United States.

Their admiration for Rome extended to its historical figures. For instance, the founders greatly respected Cicero, whom they considered an ideal statesman and orator. Alexander Hamilton went so far as to describe the Roman Republic as the peak of human excellence in governance in The Federalist Papers. Yet, they were also wary of Rome's collapse, regarding it as a lesson in what could go wrong when corruption and self-interest undermine the public good.

The founders’ focus on Roman ideals had both positive and negative effects. On one hand, it inspired the creation of a republic focused on expanding rights. On the other hand, Roman justifications for practices like slavery led many founders to rationalize human bondage within their new nation.

Examples

• "Virtue" appears 6,000 times in Revolutionary-era writings in the US National Archives, even more than the word "freedom."
• Cicero’s speeches were not just admired but set a rhetorical benchmark for American leaders like John Adams.
• Roman perspectives on slavery influenced Thomas Jefferson and others in defending the practice.

George Washington as the Modern Cato

George Washington epitomized the Roman ideal of virtue, striving to be a public servant above personal desires. His favorite play, Cato, which portrays a steadfast leader opposing tyranny, profoundly shaped his image and ethos as a leader.

Washington’s military experiences during the French and Indian War further molded his character. Witnessing the devastating consequences of arrogance and unpreparedness, he learned crucial lessons on humility and adaptability, traits he carried into the Revolutionary War.

He’s remembered not just for his military achievements but also for his restraint. Washington could have seized unrivaled power after victory but, like the Roman hero Cincinnatus, chose to step away, emphasizing his commitment to the republic.

Examples

• Washington’s admiration for Cato mirrored his own ethos of rejecting corruption and emphasizing public duty.
• His early losses in the French and Indian War illuminated the perils of prideful leadership.
• After the Revolutionary War, he willingly gave up power, setting a precedent for democratic leadership.

Washington’s Fabian Strategy in War and Peace

Faced with crushing defeats in the early Revolutionary War, Washington changed tactics, adopting the methods of Roman General Fabius. Instead of engaging in direct confrontation with superior forces, he wore down British resources, delaying battles and forcing attritional losses.

This marked a turning point in the war. Washington’s patient approach reframed American resistance as a long-term campaign rather than a quick victory. His post-war conduct further solidified his status as a virtuous leader, as he resigned from his role in the military, echoing Cincinnatus by prioritizing the republic over personal ambition.

Examples

• The Fabian strategy guided how Washington outlasted rather than overwhelmed the British in the war.
• By exhausting British resources and morale, victories like Yorktown became possible.
• Washington’s rejection of power post-war symbolized his reverence for Roman republican ideals.

John Adams and Cicero’s Legacy

John Adams modeled himself after Cicero, the Roman orator and statesman, who rose to prominence through eloquence and courage despite being a commoner. Adams, from a modest background, found inspiration in Cicero’s triumphant confrontation of political conspiracies.

Similar to Cicero, Adams often struggled with vanity and emotion. Yet his contributions to America’s ideological foundation, particularly through his writings that promoted liberty as a God-given right, cemented his role as an intellectual leader in America’s early days of revolution.

Examples

• Adams studied Cicero avidly, reading his speeches aloud and drawing motivation.
• Adams’ pamphlets like the 1765 essays laid intellectual groundwork for independence.
• His assertion of liberty as divine resonated throughout revolutionary discourse.

Thomas Jefferson and the Greeks' Influence

Thomas Jefferson stood apart from other founders in his admiration for the Greeks, leaning into their philosophies of happiness and the human experience. He was particularly drawn to Epicurus, who emphasized tranquility and pleasure as life’s purpose, aligning “happiness” with a life well-lived.

This perspective heavily influenced Jefferson's Declaration of Independence, where the pursuit of happiness is established as a natural right. Jefferson prioritized human flourishing over material wealth or estate, envisioning a hopeful, inclusive nation.

Examples

• While crafting the Declaration, Jefferson substituted John Locke’s “estate” with “happiness.”
• Jefferson frequently quoted Greek literary figures like Euripides in his commonplace book.
• Epicurus’s tenets of prudence, temperance, and justice suffuse Jefferson’s philosophy.

Madison’s Enlightenment Perspective on Classics

James Madison’s views on Greece and Rome were filtered through Enlightenment thinking, particularly Scottish intellectuals and French philosopher Montesquieu. Madison was steeped in the belief that balanced governmental systems were key to stability.

Madison’s masterstroke was the Constitution and its accompanying Federalist Papers, which ingeniously adapted lessons from ancient republics to America’s context. Rather than avoiding factions, Madison sought to institutionalize them, creating a system where conflicting interests would balance each other out.

Examples

• Madison attended Princeton under Scottish professors, learning advanced political philosophy.
• Montesquieu’s writings on checks and balances directly influenced Madison’s governmental design.
• Madison’s advocacy for a large republic countered classical fears of factionalism.

The Waning of Classical Inspiration After the Constitution

After the Constitution’s ratification, classical ideals lost their luster. The founders struggled to define the role of opposition in a government built on virtue. This failure led figures like Adams to treat dissenters as traitors, causing fractures in the carefully crafted vision of republican unity.

The rise of partisanship, coupled with socioeconomic changes, rendered classicism less relevant. Jefferson’s and Madison’s presidencies marked the shift from traditional classical inspiration toward a new American identity grounded in practical governance over lofty ideals.

Examples

• John Adams clamped down on media criticism during his presidency, eroding public trust.
• Jefferson’s inaugural address diminished the centrality of “virtue” in government.
• Public skepticism of elitism accelerated the decline of classicism as a guiding philosophy.

Slavery and the Contradiction of Virtue

The founders' application of classical ideals was inconsistent, most glaringly on the issue of slavery. Drawing from Roman justifications, they tried to align slavery with their worldview, ignoring its conflict with the principle of liberty for all.

Over time, the hypocrisy of slavery began to clash with the expanding ideals of freedom, particularly as America grew. Efforts to reconcile these contradictions eventually became part of the struggle culminating in the Civil War.

Examples

• Roman examples rationalized slavery for men like Jefferson and Madison.
• Early opposition to slavery in Northern states emphasized America’s growing ideological divide.
• The Civil War exposed the irreconcilable tension between liberty and institutionalized inequality.

The End of Classical America

By the 19th century, enthusiasm for Greek and Roman ideals faded. The Romantic movement replaced rationality-based inspiration with emotional, individual-centered philosophies. Classicism came to be seen as elitist and disconnected from America’s evolving identity.

However, America didn’t completely abandon classical roots. The architecture of public buildings, legal traditions, and concepts like checks and balances bear a lasting legacy. But as times changed, Americans found new symbols and values to guide them.

Examples

• Romanticism discouraged the old rationalist reverence for the classical world.
• Public cynicism turned toward figures who tried to embody classical ideals without adapting to new realities.
• Yet, elements of classicism endure in Washington DC and the American legal system.

Takeaways

1. Embrace public virtue by engaging in civic duties and prioritizing community welfare over personal interests.
2. Study and learn from history, identifying both valuable lessons and pitfalls from past governance models.
3. Encourage honest, balanced debates that focus on shared goals rather than deepening divisions.