Introduction
In the 16th century, a French nobleman named Michel de Montaigne retired from public life at the age of 38 and began writing a series of essays that would change the course of literature and philosophy. These essays, simply titled "Essays," were unlike anything that had come before them. They were personal, meandering, and often contradictory, reflecting the complex and ever-changing nature of Montaigne's thoughts.
Sarah Bakewell's book "How to Live" explores Montaigne's life and work, using his essays as a lens through which to examine fundamental questions about human existence. Through Montaigne's writings, Bakewell offers insights into how we might approach life, death, friendship, and the pursuit of knowledge in our own time.
Montaigne's Early Life and Career
Michel de Montaigne was born in 1533 to a wealthy family in southwestern France. His father, Pierre Eyquem, was determined to give his son the best possible education. As a result, Montaigne was raised speaking Latin as his first language and received a classical education steeped in the works of ancient Greek and Roman writers.
At the age of 24, Montaigne began a career in law and politics, serving as a magistrate in the city of Bordeaux. He was successful in his work but found it unfulfilling. Throughout his twenties and thirties, Montaigne became increasingly preoccupied with thoughts of death. This obsession was fueled by the loss of several loved ones, including his best friend, his father, and his younger brother.
A Life-Changing Near-Death Experience
In 1569 or 1570, when Montaigne was about 36 years old, he had a near-death experience that would profoundly change his outlook on life. While out riding with his servants, he was knocked from his horse and briefly lost consciousness. As he lay there, believing he was dying, Montaigne experienced a surprising sense of calm and even pleasure.
This incident taught Montaigne that there was nothing to fear about death. He realized that our minds are naturally set up to experience the process of dying in a painless, even pleasant way. This revelation freed Montaigne from his obsession with death and allowed him to approach life with a new sense of lightness and curiosity.
Retirement and the Birth of the Essays
Shortly after his near-death experience, Montaigne decided to retire from public life and withdraw to his country estate. He hoped to spend his days in quiet contemplation, dedicating himself to "freedom, tranquility, and leisure." However, Montaigne soon found that retirement brought its own challenges. Without the structure of work, his mind began to wander, filling with what he called "chimeras and fantastic monsters."
To give his thoughts some focus, Montaigne began to write. He called his pieces of writing "Essays," from the French verb "essayer," meaning "to attempt" or "to try." These essays were unlike anything that had come before. They were personal, digressive, and experimental, reflecting the meandering nature of Montaigne's thoughts.
The Revolutionary Nature of Montaigne's Writing
What made Montaigne's essays so revolutionary was their deeply personal nature. At a time when most writing was focused on grand historical events or abstract philosophical concepts, Montaigne chose to write about himself – his thoughts, his experiences, and his observations of the world around him.
This was a radical departure from the norms of the time. Montaigne was aware that some might see his project as self-indulgent or narcissistic. After all, he was not a great hero or a renowned scholar – by his own admission, he was a rather ordinary man. But Montaigne believed that it was precisely his ordinariness that made his writing valuable. By exploring his own thoughts and experiences in depth, he hoped to illuminate something universal about the human condition.
Embracing Mediocrity and Uncertainty
One of the most striking aspects of Montaigne's philosophy was his embrace of mediocrity. He frequently described himself as lazy, forgetful, and of limited intelligence. But rather than seeing these traits as flaws to be overcome, Montaigne celebrated them as part of what made him human.
This acceptance of his own limitations extended to Montaigne's view of knowledge and certainty. He was deeply skeptical of those who claimed to have absolute knowledge or unshakeable beliefs. Montaigne recognized that human knowledge is always limited and imperfect. He believed that the wisest approach to life was to remain open to new ideas and perspectives, always ready to change one's mind in the face of new evidence.
Montaigne's Writing Style: A Stream of Consciousness
Montaigne's writing style was as revolutionary as his subject matter. Rather than presenting carefully structured arguments, Montaigne allowed his thoughts to flow freely on the page. He would often start with one idea, follow it to its logical conclusion, then suddenly veer off in a completely different direction.
This stream-of-consciousness approach was a deliberate attempt to capture the fluid, ever-changing nature of human thought. Montaigne wasn't interested in presenting a polished, coherent philosophy. Instead, he wanted to show the process of thinking itself, with all its contradictions and digressions.
The Impact of the Essays
Montaigne's Essays were an immediate success upon their publication in 1580. They were widely read and discussed in French high society, even earning praise from King Henri III. The popularity of the Essays brought Montaigne out of retirement and back into public life. He served as the mayor of Bordeaux for four years and later worked as an adviser and diplomat for the French monarchy.
Throughout this period, Montaigne continued to write and revise his Essays. He published a second edition in 1588, which was nearly twice as long as the first. Even after this, he continued to add to and revise his work until his death in 1592.
Montaigne's Lasting Influence
The impact of Montaigne's Essays extended far beyond his own lifetime. Over the centuries, they have influenced countless writers, philosophers, and thinkers. Some of the greatest minds in history, including René Descartes, Blaise Pascal, Friedrich Nietzsche, Ralph Waldo Emerson, and Virginia Woolf, have engaged with Montaigne's ideas.
What makes Montaigne's work so enduringly relevant is its deeply human quality. By writing so honestly and openly about his own thoughts and experiences, Montaigne created a mirror in which readers across the centuries have been able to see reflections of themselves. His essays tackle universal human concerns – how to live, how to die, how to love, how to learn – with a frankness and humility that continues to resonate today.
Key Ideas from Montaigne's Essays
1. Embrace Uncertainty
One of Montaigne's most radical ideas was his embrace of uncertainty. At a time when many thinkers were striving for absolute certainty in their beliefs, Montaigne argued that true wisdom lay in recognizing the limits of human knowledge. He wrote, "What do I know?" as his personal motto, emphasizing the importance of intellectual humility.
Montaigne believed that dogmatism – the unshakeable belief in one's own rightness – was not only foolish but dangerous. He had lived through the violent religious wars between Catholics and Protestants in France, and he saw how rigid beliefs could lead to terrible acts of cruelty. By contrast, Montaigne advocated for a more flexible, open-minded approach to life and knowledge.
This embrace of uncertainty didn't mean that Montaigne thought we should believe nothing. Rather, he encouraged his readers to hold their beliefs lightly, always ready to revise them in the face of new evidence or perspectives. He saw this as a more honest and ultimately more fruitful way of engaging with the world.
2. Pay Attention to the Ordinary
Another revolutionary aspect of Montaigne's work was his focus on the ordinary details of everyday life. While many of his contemporaries were writing about grand historical events or lofty philosophical concepts, Montaigne wrote about things like his kidney stones, his cat, and the way he liked his eggs cooked.
This focus on the mundane wasn't mere triviality. Montaigne believed that by paying close attention to the small details of our lives, we could gain profound insights into the human condition. He saw each individual life as a microcosm of humanity as a whole, and he believed that by understanding ourselves better, we could better understand the world around us.
Montaigne's attention to the ordinary also reflected his belief in the value of lived experience over abstract theory. He was skeptical of grand philosophical systems that claimed to explain everything. Instead, he preferred to base his understanding of the world on careful observation of his own experiences and those of others.
3. Be True to Yourself
One of Montaigne's most famous quotes is, "To be what we are, and to become what we are capable of becoming, is the only end of life." This idea of authenticity – of being true to oneself – runs throughout the Essays.
For Montaigne, being true to oneself meant accepting both one's strengths and weaknesses. He was remarkably candid about his own flaws, writing openly about his poor memory, his tendency to procrastinate, and his sometimes cowardly nature. But rather than seeing these as things to be ashamed of or overcome, Montaigne accepted them as part of who he was.
This self-acceptance extended to Montaigne's view of human nature as a whole. He was skeptical of moral systems that demanded perfection or radical self-transformation. Instead, he advocated for a more realistic and compassionate view of human nature, one that recognized our limitations and imperfections as an integral part of who we are.
4. Learn from Everything
Montaigne had an insatiable curiosity about the world around him. He believed that everything – from the behavior of his cat to the customs of distant cultures – had something to teach us if we approached it with an open mind.
This attitude is reflected in Montaigne's wide-ranging reading habits. He drew inspiration from a vast array of sources, including ancient Greek and Roman writers, contemporary travel accounts, and his own observations of daily life. He believed that wisdom could be found in the most unexpected places, and he encouraged his readers to remain open to learning from all aspects of life.
Montaigne's approach to learning was not about accumulating facts or achieving mastery over a subject. Instead, he saw learning as a lifelong process of questioning, exploring, and revising one's understanding of the world. He wrote, "We are all patchwork, and so shapeless and diverse in composition that each bit, each moment, plays its own game."
5. Practice Moderation
While Montaigne was fascinated by extremes of human behavior and thought, he generally advocated for a path of moderation in one's own life. He was skeptical of asceticism and self-denial, believing that such practices often did more harm than good. At the same time, he warned against excessive indulgence or ambition.
For Montaigne, the key to a good life was finding a balance that allowed for both pleasure and virtue. He wrote, "The greatest thing in the world is to know how to belong to oneself." This meant cultivating a sense of inner stability that could withstand the ups and downs of fortune.
Montaigne's philosophy of moderation extended to his views on politics and society. He was critical of extremism in all its forms and advocated for tolerance and compromise in public life. In an age of religious wars and political upheaval, Montaigne's call for moderation was both radical and deeply necessary.
6. Cultivate Friendship
Friendship was one of the central themes of Montaigne's Essays. He wrote movingly about his deep friendship with Étienne de La Boétie, a fellow writer who died young. For Montaigne, true friendship was one of life's greatest pleasures and a source of profound meaning.
Montaigne saw friendship as a relationship of equals, based on mutual understanding and respect. He contrasted this with many of the hierarchical relationships that dominated society in his time. In friendship, Montaigne found a model for how human beings could relate to each other in a more authentic and fulfilling way.
The importance Montaigne placed on friendship extended to his relationship with his readers. He saw his Essays as a kind of conversation with future friends, writing, "I have not made my book any more than my book has made me."
7. Face Death with Equanimity
As we've seen, Montaigne's near-death experience profoundly changed his attitude toward death. While he had once been obsessed with and terrified by the idea of dying, he came to see death as a natural part of life that need not be feared.
Montaigne believed that by accepting the reality of our mortality, we could live more fully and authentically. He wrote, "To practice death is to practice freedom. A man who has learned how to die has unlearned how to be a slave."
This didn't mean that Montaigne thought we should be indifferent to death. He recognized the pain of loss and the natural human desire to cling to life. But he believed that by facing death honestly and openly, we could free ourselves from paralyzing fear and live more fully in the present.
8. Embrace the Body
In an age when many philosophers and religious thinkers emphasized the importance of the soul over the body, Montaigne took a more holistic view. He wrote extensively about bodily experiences – everything from sex to illness to the simple pleasures of eating and drinking.
For Montaigne, our physical experiences were not separate from our intellectual or spiritual lives. He saw the body as an integral part of who we are, and he believed that by paying attention to our physical experiences, we could gain important insights into ourselves and the world around us.
This embrace of the body extended to Montaigne's views on pleasure. Unlike many moralists of his time, he saw nothing wrong with enjoying physical pleasures, as long as one did so in moderation. He wrote, "The most certain sign of wisdom is cheerfulness."
9. Question Everything
Montaigne's Essays are filled with questions. He constantly interrogated his own beliefs and assumptions, as well as those of the society around him. This questioning attitude was at the heart of Montaigne's philosophy.
For Montaigne, questioning wasn't about arriving at final answers. Instead, he saw it as a way of keeping the mind active and engaged, always open to new possibilities. He believed that by continually questioning our beliefs and assumptions, we could avoid the trap of dogmatism and remain open to growth and change.
This questioning attitude extended to Montaigne's view of authority. He was skeptical of those who claimed to have absolute knowledge or power, whether in religion, politics, or philosophy. Instead, he encouraged his readers to think for themselves and to base their beliefs on their own experiences and observations.
10. Live in the Present
Finally, Montaigne emphasized the importance of living in the present moment. He was critical of those who spent their lives worrying about the future or dwelling on the past. Instead, he advocated for a full engagement with the here and now.
This didn't mean that Montaigne thought we should ignore the past or future entirely. He recognized the value of learning from history and planning for the future. But he believed that true wisdom lay in finding a balance, one that allowed us to be fully present in our current experiences while still learning from the past and preparing for the future.
For Montaigne, living in the present was about more than just enjoying the moment. It was about being fully engaged with life in all its complexity and contradiction. He wrote, "The greatest thing in the world is to know how to belong to oneself."
Conclusion: The Enduring Relevance of Montaigne
More than four centuries after his death, Michel de Montaigne continues to speak to us. His Essays, with their frank discussion of human nature, their embrace of uncertainty, and their celebration of the ordinary details of life, feel remarkably modern.
In a world that often seems to demand certainty and perfection, Montaigne offers a refreshing alternative. He shows us that it's okay to be uncertain, to change our minds, to have flaws and contradictions. He encourages us to embrace our humanity in all its messy complexity.
Montaigne's approach to life – curious, skeptical, open-minded, and deeply engaged with the world around him – provides a model for how we might navigate our own complex and often confusing world. His Essays remind us of the value of self-reflection, of questioning our assumptions, and of remaining open to new ideas and experiences.
Perhaps most importantly, Montaigne shows us that the key to living well lies not in grand philosophies or rigid moral systems, but in paying close attention to our own experiences and those of others. By doing so, we can gain insights into the human condition that are both profound and deeply personal.
In the end, Montaigne's Essays are not just a collection of thoughts from a 16th-century French nobleman. They are a conversation that continues across the centuries, inviting each new generation of readers to engage with fundamental questions about what it means to be human and how to live a good life.
As we face the challenges of our own time – from political polarization to technological change to environmental crisis – Montaigne's wisdom remains as relevant as ever. His call for intellectual humility, his embrace of diversity and difference, and his deep engagement with the complexities of human nature offer valuable lessons for our own age.
By following Montaigne's example – by questioning our assumptions, embracing uncertainty, paying attention to the ordinary details of life, and remaining open to new ideas and experiences – we too can learn to live more fully and authentically. In doing so, we may find, as Montaigne did, that the key to living well lies not in achieving perfection or certainty, but in embracing the rich, complex, and ever-changing nature of human experience.