Introduction
In "How You Say It," Katherine D. Kinzler explores the fascinating world of language and speech, revealing how the way we talk shapes our identities, influences our social interactions, and even affects our cognitive abilities. This book delves into the subtle yet powerful forces that mold our speech patterns and examines the hidden biases that exist in our language use.
Kinzler's work uncovers the psychology behind speech, demonstrating that our way of speaking is not just a matter of communication but is deeply intertwined with social forces and societal perceptions. From the accents we acquire in early childhood to the unconscious biases baked into our conversations, "How You Say It" offers a comprehensive look at why the way we speak can often matter more than the content of our words.
The Social Shaping of Speech
Linguistic Identity and Social Groups
One of the key insights from Kinzler's book is that our speech patterns are not solely determined by biology but are heavily influenced by our social environment. Humans naturally categorize each other into different social groups based on various factors, including nationality, race, religion, and even sports team affiliations. However, one often overlooked yet crucial category is linguistic groupings – the different styles of speaking that people adopt.
The way we speak has a profound impact on our social lives. We tend to gravitate towards people who share not just our language but also our accent, inflection, and tone of speech. Moreover, when we join a social group, we often unconsciously alter our way of talking to fit in better.
Kinzler cites the work of sociolinguist Penelope Eckert, who studied this phenomenon among teenagers in the 1980s. Eckert identified two distinct social categories in a high school: jocks and burnouts. Despite coming from similar backgrounds, these groups had noticeably different ways of speaking. For instance, jocks would pronounce the midday meal as "lunch," while burnouts would say it more like "launch."
This linguistic differentiation is not limited to specific social groups but also manifests across generations. In the 1990s, American teens adopted "upspeak," a Valley girl-style intonation where every statement sounds like a question. Today, young people are more likely to use "vocal fry," a low-pitched, gravelly tone. Older generations often view these speech patterns negatively, reflecting an unconscious bias towards their own linguistic norms.
The Power of Early Language Acquisition
Kinzler's book also highlights the critical role of early language exposure in shaping our speech patterns. The author uses the examples of famous writers Joseph Conrad and Vladimir Nabokov to illustrate this point. Both achieved literary acclaim writing in English, despite it not being their first language. However, Conrad spoke with a thick Polish accent, while Nabokov had only a hint of Russian in his speech. The key difference was that Nabokov had been exposed to English at a much younger age through an English-speaking governess.
This anecdote underscores a crucial finding in language acquisition research: the younger we are, the easier it is to learn a language. Kinzler explains that young brains are more malleable and better equipped to pick up new languages. While it's certainly possible to learn a language later in life, it becomes increasingly difficult to achieve native-like fluency as we age.
Studies have consistently shown that our ability to master a new language starts to decline around the age of seven. By the time we reach 20, this decline levels off, meaning that young adults and senior citizens have roughly the same language-learning ability. With sustained effort, adults can acquire new languages, but they often struggle to grasp all the nuances of grammar and pronunciation due to decreased brain flexibility.
This biological reality has important implications for how we experience language emotionally. Adults who learn new languages often feel less emotionally attached to them compared to their native tongue. For instance, bilingual adults show stronger physical responses to curse words in their first language than in languages learned later in life.
Language as a Unifying and Dividing Force
The Role of Language in Identity and Community
Kinzler's book delves into how language can both bring people together and drive them apart. She uses the example of the 1976 Soweto uprising in South Africa to illustrate this point. The protests were sparked by the government's decision to make Afrikaans, the language of the white ruling minority, the only acceptable language in schools, banning local languages like Zulu, Sotho, and Tswana.
This historical event underscores the deep personal connection people feel to their native languages and how language suppression can be used as a tool of oppression. Kinzler argues that language is crucial to identity, and sharing a language is essential for forming social bonds. Conversely, linguistic differences can create barriers between people and communities.
The author explains that humans are so attuned to language differences that even toddlers can identify non-native speakers. This sensitivity to linguistic variations can lead to the formation of in-groups and out-groups based on speech patterns alone.
Accent Attitudes and Linguistic Insecurity
Kinzler introduces the concept of "accent attitudes," which refers to the different values societies assign to various languages or dialects. These attitudes often fuel stereotypes, some harmless (like Americans perceiving Southern accents as kinder) and others more pernicious (such as judging African American speakers as less intelligent or competent).
The book also discusses "linguistic insecurity," a phenomenon where individuals internalize negative accent attitudes. This can lead to added stress and social barriers. For example, a non-native English speaker might avoid speaking up in class or at work, even if they have a good command of the language, due to insecurity about their accent.
The Primacy of Speech in Human Categorization
Speech as a Fundamental Social Marker
Kinzler presents a compelling argument that speech may be the most important category in determining our biases. She draws on evolutionary psychology to explain that humans have an innate drive to categorize others as either "us" or "them." This tendency likely evolved as a survival mechanism in harsh natural environments.
The author suggests that biases around language and speech may be more ancient and deeply rooted than other forms of social division, such as race or nationality. She supports this claim by pointing to similar behaviors in other species, such as baboons using calls to distinguish social relationships and orcas having distinct "accents" in their whistles to set them apart from other pods.
The Power of Voice Over Appearance
Kinzler cites research that examined whether race or language takes precedence in people's unconscious biases. In one study, participants were asked to categorize faces as either German or Italian. Initially, they sorted based on skin tone, labeling lighter faces as German and darker ones as Italian. However, when voice samples were added to the faces, the results changed dramatically. Participants ignored physical appearance and categorized individuals based solely on their accent, regardless of skin tone.
This finding suggests that the way someone speaks is often perceived as more essential to their identity than how they look. It underscores the profound impact that speech patterns have on our social perceptions and interactions.
The Early Development of Linguistic Biases
Linguistic Preferences from Birth
Kinzler's book reveals that linguistic biases emerge at a very young age, starting from birth. She explains that babies can hear their mother's voice while in the womb, which primes them to pay more attention to their mother's native tongue than to other languages after birth.
Research has shown that infants demonstrate clear preferences for speakers of their native language. In one experiment, babies from English-speaking families consistently reached for toys offered by English speakers rather than French speakers. This tendency continues throughout childhood, with children often choosing playmates who share their accent, even when given the option to choose based on race.
The Impact of Media on Linguistic Stereotypes
Kinzler points out that popular media, especially children's movies, can unintentionally reinforce linguistic biases. She notes that in many mainstream films, protagonists often speak perfect American English, while antagonists or comic relief characters are given heavy non-standard accents. Examples include the contrast between Simba's plainspoken English and the growly British voice of his evil uncle, Scar, in "The Lion King."
While these depictions might seem trivial, they can significantly influence a child's understanding of the world. Given that humans are attuned to language differences from birth, these media portrayals can create lasting stereotypes that are difficult to erase later in life.
The Pervasiveness of Accent Discrimination
Accent Bias in Professional Settings
Kinzler's book highlights how discrimination based on someone's accent is both pervasive and widely accepted in society. She shares the story of Manuel Fragante, a highly qualified applicant who was denied a job at the Department of Motor Vehicles solely because of his Filipino accent, despite speaking grammatically perfect English. Fragante's subsequent lawsuit was unsuccessful, with the court deciding that denying employment based on accent was not discriminatory.
This case illustrates a broader issue: while everyone has an accent, not all accents are treated equally. Often, people's responses to accents have more to do with their perceptions and biases than with any actual difficulty in understanding.
The Impact of Accent Bias in Education and Law
Kinzler discusses how accent bias affects various aspects of life, including education and the legal system. In the United States, it's common for students to complain that foreign teachers are difficult to understand. However, research has shown that these students can accurately transcribe accented speech if they're told they're listening to a native speaker, suggesting that the perceived difficulty is often a result of expectation rather than reality.
In the legal realm, studies have found that jurors often rate testimonies from speakers of standard English as more credible than those from individuals with non-standard accents. This bias can put linguistic or racial minorities at a significant disadvantage in court proceedings, highlighting the need for greater awareness and mitigation of accent discrimination in the justice system.
The Cognitive Benefits of Bilingualism
Debunking the Monolingual Myth
Kinzler's book challenges the common belief that growing up with two languages is too complicated for children and hinders their language development. She refers to this misconception as the "monolingual myth" and presents evidence to the contrary.
The author explains that before the 1960s, many linguists believed that raising bilingual children would slow their development. However, this notion was based on flawed studies that failed to account for other factors, such as socioeconomic status. More recent research has shown that bilingual children suffer no cognitive impairment and, when accounting for both their languages, have vocabularies comparable to monolingual children.
The Advantages of Bilingualism
Kinzler highlights several cognitive benefits associated with bilingualism. Children who speak two languages often demonstrate greater flexibility in thinking and superior problem-solving skills. They also tend to be better at imagining the mental states of others, a skill known as theory of mind.
Furthermore, the book discusses evidence suggesting that bilingualism may offer protection against symptoms of dementia and Alzheimer's disease later in life. This finding adds to the growing body of research indicating that speaking multiple languages can have long-term cognitive benefits.
The Complementarity Principle
Kinzler introduces the concept of the "complementarity principle" in bilingual language development. This principle describes how bilingual children often use one of their languages for certain topics and the other language for different subjects. Rather than indicating confusion or cognitive struggle, this distribution of vocabulary across languages demonstrates sophisticated brain functioning and efficient language use.
Implications and Recommendations
Embracing Linguistic Diversity
Based on the insights presented in "How You Say It," Kinzler advocates for embracing linguistic diversity in all aspects of life. She suggests that schools should introduce second language instruction as early as possible and that education systems should not discourage children from speaking their native languages.
The author argues that with proper investment in early childhood programs, future generations could grow up speaking multiple languages and communicating more effectively across social divides. This approach could lead to a more inclusive and understanding society, where linguistic differences are celebrated rather than used as a basis for discrimination.
Addressing Accent Discrimination
Kinzler's work underscores the need to address accent discrimination in various sectors, including employment, education, and the legal system. She suggests that increased awareness of linguistic biases and their impact could lead to fairer practices and policies.
The book implies that organizations and institutions should implement training programs to help people recognize and mitigate their accent biases. Additionally, it suggests that legal protections against accent discrimination should be strengthened to ensure equal opportunities for all, regardless of how they speak.
Promoting Early Language Exposure
Given the cognitive benefits of bilingualism and the importance of early language exposure, Kinzler's book indirectly advocates for policies and practices that support multilingual environments for children. This could include:
- Encouraging parents to expose their children to multiple languages from an early age.
- Implementing bilingual education programs in schools.
- Providing resources and support for immigrant families to maintain their heritage languages while learning the local language.
- Promoting cultural exchange programs that expose children to different languages and cultures.
Conclusion
"How You Say It" by Katherine D. Kinzler offers a comprehensive exploration of the complex relationship between language, identity, and social perception. The book reveals that our speech patterns carry far more information than just the literal meaning of our words. Our language, accent, and pronunciation all convey messages about our connections, status, and place in society.
Kinzler's work demonstrates how shared speech patterns can bring people together, but also how linguistic differences can create barriers and fuel discrimination. By uncovering the hidden biases in our language use, the book challenges readers to reconsider their own linguistic prejudices and to recognize the value of linguistic diversity.
The author's findings have far-reaching implications for education, social policy, and personal interactions. By embracing linguistic diversity and striving to teach children multiple languages, we can work towards building a fairer and more connected world. Ultimately, "How You Say It" encourages us to listen more carefully not just to what people say, but how they say it, and to appreciate the rich tapestry of human communication in all its varied forms.