Introduction
Mark Bowden's "Hue 1968" provides a gripping account of one of the most pivotal battles of the Vietnam War. The book offers a detailed look at the Battle of Hue, which took place during the Tet Offensive in early 1968. This battle marked a crucial turning point in the war, shifting American public opinion and ultimately leading to the United States' withdrawal from Vietnam.
Bowden, known for his immersive storytelling, brings the battle to life through extensive research and interviews with participants from both sides. He paints a vivid picture of the intense urban combat, the strategic missteps of American military leadership, and the profound impact of the battle on the course of the war.
This summary will explore the key events and themes of "Hue 1968," providing insight into the historical context of the Vietnam War, the planning and execution of the Tet Offensive, the brutal fighting in Hue, and the far-reaching consequences of this pivotal battle.
The Roots of the Vietnam War
To understand the significance of the Battle of Hue, it's essential to grasp the historical context that led to the Vietnam War. Bowden provides a concise overview of the events that set the stage for this conflict.
French Colonial Rule and the First Indochina War
The roots of the Vietnam War can be traced back to the era of French colonialism. Since the 19th century, France had ruled over Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia under the name of French Indochina. However, in the aftermath of World War II, as empires crumbled worldwide, the French faced increasing demands for national self-determination in their colonies.
In Vietnam, the French found themselves fighting against the Viet Minh, a revolutionary pro-independence organization led by Ho Chi Minh. This conflict, known as the First Indochina War, lasted from 1946 to 1954. Despite receiving support from US advisors and weaponry after 1950, the French military struggled against the determined Viet Minh forces.
The Geneva Accords and the Division of Vietnam
The First Indochina War culminated in the Geneva Accords of 1954. These agreements stipulated that the French would withdraw from Vietnam, granting the country de facto independence. However, the accords also temporarily divided Vietnam at the 17th parallel. North Vietnam would exist as a communist state, while South Vietnam would be a republic backed by the French and Americans.
The Geneva Accords called for elections to be held in 1956 to reunite the country according to the will of the Vietnamese people. However, the South Vietnamese government, with US support, reneged on this agreement. President Eisenhower estimated that the Communists would likely win about 80% of the vote in a free election, a prospect that was unacceptable to the US government in the context of the Cold War.
The Beginning of US Involvement
The decision to prevent the 1956 elections set the stage for increased US involvement in Vietnam. The US rallied behind South Vietnam, viewing it as a Western-style republic that could help contain the spread of communism from the northern Communist state.
This decision led the Viet Minh, now renamed the Viet Cong, to launch a campaign of armed resistance in South Vietnam. To the Viet Cong, the South Vietnamese government was an undemocratic, Western puppet state that needed to be overthrown.
As the weak and unpopular South Vietnamese government struggled to resist the Viet Cong, American intervention became increasingly likely. The stage was set for a conflict that would drag on for years and cost countless lives on both sides.
Escalation of American Involvement
The American intervention in Vietnam evolved gradually but inexorably into a full-scale war. Bowden outlines how successive US administrations deepened their commitment to the conflict, despite mounting evidence of its futility.
Kennedy and Johnson: Expanding the American Role
Under President John F. Kennedy, and later Lyndon B. Johnson (LBJ), American involvement in Vietnam increased dramatically. Both presidents were staunchly opposed to Communist expansion, but it was LBJ who significantly escalated the US military presence after Kennedy's assassination in 1963.
Ground operations officially began in 1965, supporting the extensive bombing campaigns that had started the previous year. The scale of these air strikes was staggering: by the end of 1967, more bombs had been dropped on Vietnam than on Europe during the entirety of World War II. These bombardments were killing an estimated 1,000 Vietnamese civilians every week.
The Futility of Bombing Campaigns
The massive bombing campaign was intended to force North Vietnam to the negotiating table. However, despite the American onslaught, Communist forces showed no signs of retreat. In fact, North Vietnam's economy even grew between 1965 and 1966, thanks to Soviet assistance, and Communist troops continued their slow but steady push southward.
Bowden points out a crucial flaw in the American strategy: Vietnam was still essentially an agricultural society, lacking the kind of industrial targets that could be effectively destroyed from the air. The US military's approach, based on their experiences in World War II Europe, was ill-suited to the realities of Vietnam.
Mounting Doubts and Inflated Casualty Reports
As the war dragged on, doubts about its viability began to surface within the US government. Even Defense Secretary Robert McNamara, once a strong advocate of the bombing campaign, had resigned himself to failure by the end of 1968.
However, General William Westmoreland, known as "Westy," remained optimistic. He based his confidence on casualty reports that showed an increasingly favorable ratio for American forces. By 1966, the reported casualty ratio was 6:1 in favor of America, up from 2:1 in 1965.
The problem, as Bowden reveals, was that these numbers were grossly inflated. A widespread phenomenon of exaggeration permeated the US military bureaucracy. Westmoreland, receiving these inflated figures, passed them on to President Johnson, who in turn used them to bolster public support for the war.
This disconnect between reality and reported success would have significant consequences as the war progressed.
The Tet Offensive and the Battle of Hue
The heart of Bowden's book focuses on the Tet Offensive, particularly the intense fighting in the city of Hue. This campaign, launched by North Vietnamese and Viet Cong forces in early 1968, would prove to be a turning point in the war.
Planning the Tet Offensive
While American military leadership was convinced of impending victory, the Communist regime in Hanoi was planning a massive operation. The Tet Offensive, named after the Vietnamese New Year when it would occur, was designed as a sequence of surprise attacks on major cities, towns, and military bases across South Vietnam.
The North Vietnamese leadership hoped that these attacks would inspire a popular uprising against the South Vietnamese government and its American allies. However, as Bowden points out, this expectation was based on a misreading of the situation, particularly in urban areas like Hue.
The Strategic Importance of Hue
Hue held a special place in Vietnamese history and culture. As the third most important city in both North and South Vietnam, it was a center of learning and culture. The city had been the base of Vietnamese power for over a century before the French colonial period, and its imperial citadel was both well-fortified and symbolically significant.
The Communist forces recognized the strategic and symbolic importance of capturing Hue. They calculated that a force of nearly 10,000 troops would be needed to take and hold the city. The planning for this operation was meticulous and clandestine, involving the establishment of bases in nearby villages, the recruitment of local underground cells, and the covert movement of thousands of troops through the countryside.
The Attack on Hue
The Tet Offensive began on the night of January 30, 1968. In Hue, thousands of Communist troops moved silently into position around and within the city. The attack was timed to coincide with Tet celebrations when a truce was typically observed, catching American and South Vietnamese forces off guard.
The assault began with an artillery barrage and the destruction of South Vietnamese tanks using pre-planted explosives. Within hours, the Communists had taken control of most of the city, including ten of the Citadel's eleven gates, the airstrip, and the majority of government buildings.
However, the attackers failed to capture one crucial target: the US military compound. This oversight would prove significant in the battles to come.
The Aftermath of the Initial Attack
In the immediate aftermath of the attack, Communist forces sought to rally local support. They broadcast radio messages and gave speeches imploring the people of Hue to join their cause. However, contrary to their expectations, the local citizens remained largely unmoved.
As it became clear that the hoped-for popular uprising would not materialize, the Communist forces began a brutal crackdown. They instigated a swift purge of supposed "foreign elements" from the city, targeting the intelligentsia, well-educated citizens, and anyone suspected of supporting the South Vietnamese government.
This purge resulted in the execution of an estimated 2,000 "enemies of the people" over the following weeks. The brutality of these actions would have lasting consequences for the perception of the Communist cause.
American Response and Military Failures
Bowden's account of the Battle of Hue reveals significant failures in American military intelligence and leadership. These missteps would prove costly in terms of both lives lost and public opinion back home.
Underestimating the Enemy
From the outset, US military command vastly underestimated the strength of the Northern attack on Hue. When the American compound in Hue radioed for reinforcements, the initial response was to send 400 marines to defend against what was assumed to be a few hundred Northern troops.
As these marines encountered unexpectedly heavy resistance, it became clear that the situation was far more serious than initially thought. Lieutenant Colonel Gravel, commanding the marine reinforcements, quickly realized that more troops were needed to retake the city. However, his requests for additional support were initially ignored by his superiors.
Westmoreland's Denial
General Westmoreland, in particular, refused to acknowledge the severity of the situation in Hue. Despite mounting evidence to the contrary, he continued to insist that Hanoi's power was fading and that the city would be quickly retaken.
Westmoreland informed his superiors that there were only about three companies of Communists in Hue. In reality, the hostile forces were approximately 20 times stronger than he believed. This massive underestimation of enemy strength would have dire consequences for the American troops tasked with retaking the city.
The Role of Journalism
While military leadership was downplaying the situation, journalists on the ground were painting a very different picture. Gene Roberts, a New York Times reporter, arrived in Hue the day after its capture and provided firsthand accounts of the devastation and the dire situation faced by American forces.
Roberts' reporting made the front page of the Times on February 2, bringing the true extent of the battle to light. His intelligence proved more accurate than that of either Westmoreland or President Johnson, highlighting the growing disconnect between official narratives and the reality on the ground.
Military Leadership's Response
The response of Westmoreland and military command to these conflicting reports was to go on lockdown, even denouncing Roberts' reporting as false. Defense Secretary McNamara went so far as to announce on television that the Communists had failed in their offensive, as they'd been unable to hold any cities.
This divergence between media reports and official statements marked a significant shift in the Vietnam War narrative. For the first time, there was a clear and public disconnect between what journalists were reporting and what the military establishment was claiming.
The Battle to Retake Hue
Bowden provides a detailed account of the grueling fight to recapture Hue from Communist forces. This urban battle, unlike anything US forces had faced before in Vietnam, would prove to be one of the bloodiest engagements of the war.
Initial Counterattack
By February 3, American forces had managed to capture only one additional city block, at the cost of 100 American lives in just three days. It was clear that a more comprehensive strategy was needed to retake the city.
US commanders devised a three-pronged attack:
- Disrupt Communist supply lines in the countryside around Hue
- Launch a marine-led assault on southern Hue
- Support South Vietnamese forces in attacking the Citadel
Challenges of Urban Warfare
The battle for Hue presented unique challenges for US forces. Much of the Vietnam War had been fought in rural areas, and the marines were not trained for close-quarters urban combat. Additionally, concerns about damaging historically significant sites initially ruled out the use of air support or heavy bombing.
Colonel Cheatham, an experienced officer who had also fought in the Korean War, led the marine assault on southern Hue. Drawing on hastily read pamphlets on urban warfare, he developed a strategy to take the city back one block at a time. Instead of advancing through the streets, the marines would move through buildings, using walls as cover and blasting through to move from one structure to the next.
Slow Progress
This building-by-building approach proved effective but slow and costly. By nightfall on February 4, the Americans controlled eight city blocks. Outside Hue, US Army forces were making progress in disrupting enemy supply lines.
After four days of intense fighting, Cheatham's marines finally reached the canal surrounding the Citadel. They had retaken some of the most important buildings in the southern part of the city, including the old South Vietnamese headquarters.
The Battle for the Citadel
While progress was being made in southern Hue, the fight for the Citadel proved even more challenging. South Vietnamese forces had managed to take one of the Citadel's gates but were still surrounded and heavily outgunned.
As the battle wore on, restrictions on aerial bombardment were lifted. Jets began raining bombs on key structures like the Dong Ba Tower, which Communist forces had been using as a vantage point to attack on all sides. However, even heavy bombing failed to dislodge the entrenched defenders, necessitating costly ground assaults.
The Final Push
By February 20, the assault was nearing its end. The royal palace was the last remaining structure in Communist hands. Outside, the specially designed Communist flag still flew 40 meters high, visible across the town. However, it was now just a symbol of the last pocket of resistance.
After 23 days of intense fighting, the last Communist defenders conceded. The battle for Hue was over, but at a tremendous cost.
The Impact of the Battle of Hue
The Battle of Hue, while a military victory for American and South Vietnamese forces, had far-reaching consequences that would ultimately change the course of the Vietnam War.
Devastating Casualties
The human cost of the battle was staggering. An estimated 6,000 civilians perished in Hue, and about 80% of the city's buildings were destroyed or severely damaged. Military casualties were equally appalling: between 2,400 to 5,000 Communist fighters were killed, along with 250 Americans and 458 South Vietnamese troops. In total, over 10,000 lives were lost in the battle for Hue, making it one of the bloodiest engagements of the entire war.
Shift in Public Opinion
The brutality and scale of the fighting in Hue, vividly reported by journalists on the ground, shocked the American public. The battle marked a turning point in public opinion about the war. The disconnect between official statements of progress and the reality of the situation became impossible to ignore.
Television news played a crucial role in this shift. CBS news anchor Walter Cronkite, known as the "most trusted man in America," visited Hue during the battle. His subsequent broadcast, which included a devastating analysis of American military intelligence failures and shocking images of the destroyed city, had a profound impact on public perception.
Cronkite's report concluded with the previously unthinkable suggestion that the war could not be won. This marked a significant shift in mainstream media coverage of the war, lending credibility to the growing anti-war movement.
Political Fallout
The political consequences of the Battle of Hue were swift and significant. President Johnson, who had been planning to run for re-election, faced a strong challenge from within his own party from anti-war candidate Eugene McCarthy. In March 1968, Johnson nearly lost the New Hampshire Democratic Primary to McCarthy, a result that would have been unthinkable just weeks earlier.
Faced with growing opposition to the war and his handling of it, Johnson made the shocking decision to drop out of the presidential race. This opened the door for Richard Nixon, who campaigned on a promise to end the war, to win the presidency in November 1968.
Military Leadership Changes
The Battle of Hue also led to changes in military leadership. General Westmoreland, whose overly optimistic assessments and failure to recognize the true situation in Hue had contributed to the high casualty count, was relieved of his command in Vietnam in June 1968.
Long-Term Impact on US Strategy
The Battle of Hue forced a reassessment of US strategy in Vietnam. The ability of North Vietnamese and Viet Cong forces to launch such a large-scale offensive, even if it was ultimately repelled, shattered the illusion of impending American victory.
In the years following the Tet Offensive, the US gradually reduced its troop presence in Vietnam while simultaneously assisting in the expansion of the South Vietnamese army. This "Vietnamization" of the war was a direct result of the realization, brought home by battles like Hue, that an outright military victory was unlikely.
The End of the Vietnam War
While the Battle of Hue marked a turning point, the Vietnam War would drag on for several more years. Bowden briefly outlines the final stages of the conflict and its aftermath.
Gradual US Withdrawal
Following the Tet Offensive, the United States began a process of gradual withdrawal from Vietnam. This was coupled with an increased emphasis on training and equipping South Vietnamese forces to take over the bulk of the fighting.
By 1973, the last US combat troops had left Vietnam. However, America continued to provide material support to South Vietnam, hoping that with American training and equipment, the South Vietnamese army could hold out against the North.
The Fall of South Vietnam
Despite American efforts to bolster South Vietnamese forces, they proved unable to withstand the renewed Northern offensive. In a bitter irony, Hue once again fell to Communist forces in March 1975, this time for good. The following month, Saigon, the capital of South Vietnam, also fell.
In 1976, North and South Vietnam were officially reunited under Communist rule. The long and costly American effort to prevent the spread of Communism in Southeast Asia had ended in failure.
Regional Destabilization
Bowden notes that the war had far-reaching consequences beyond Vietnam itself. The bombing of North Vietnamese supply routes in neighboring Cambodia directly contributed to the rise of the Khmer Rouge regime in that country. The resulting genocide under Pol Pot's leadership would claim millions of Cambodian lives.
Conclusion: The Legacy of Hue 1968
In concluding his account of the Battle of Hue and its impact, Bowden reflects on the broader significance of this pivotal engagement in the context of the Vietnam War and American history.
A Turning Point in the War
The Battle of Hue stands as a crucial turning point in the Vietnam War. It shattered the illusion of impending American victory and exposed the limitations of US military strategy in Vietnam. The intense urban combat, vividly reported by journalists on the ground, brought the brutal reality of the war into American living rooms in a way that previous engagements had not.
The Power of Media in Wartime
One of the key themes that emerges from Bowden's account is the crucial role that media coverage played in shaping public perception of the war. The stark contrast between official military statements and the reports of journalists like Gene Roberts and Walter Cronkite highlighted the growing "credibility gap" between the government and the public. This disconnect would have lasting implications for public trust in government institutions.
The Limits of Military Power
The Battle of Hue also underscored the limitations of conventional military power in the face of a determined insurgency. Despite overwhelming technological superiority and massive firepower, US forces struggled to dislodge the entrenched Communist defenders from Hue. This reality forced a reassessment of American military doctrine and strategy.
The Human Cost of War
Perhaps most importantly, Bowden's account serves as a stark reminder of the human cost of war. The devastating civilian casualties, the brutality of urban combat, and the lasting trauma inflicted on both soldiers and civilians paint a sobering picture of the true nature of armed conflict.
Lessons for the Future
In the decades since the Vietnam War, the lessons of Hue have continued to resonate. The challenges of urban warfare, the importance of accurate intelligence, the power of media coverage, and the limitations of military force in achieving political objectives are all themes that have recurred in subsequent conflicts.
As Bowden concludes, the Battle of Hue serves as a powerful case study in the complexities and consequences of modern warfare. It stands as a testament to the bravery and sacrifice of those who fought, while also serving as a cautionary tale about the perils of military intervention and the often unforeseen consequences of war.
In the end, "Hue 1968" is not just a military history, but a profound exploration of a pivotal moment that changed the course of the Vietnam War and left an indelible mark on American history. It serves as a reminder of the need for clear-eyed assessment of military objectives, honest communication with the public, and a full understanding of the human costs of war.