India's journey as an independent nation is one of the most remarkable stories of the modern era. After gaining independence from British rule in 1947, India faced immense challenges - from widespread poverty and illiteracy to religious violence and refugee crises. Many observers doubted whether this diverse nation of hundreds of millions could survive as a unified democracy. Yet against all odds, India has endured as the world's largest democracy for over 70 years.
In "India After Gandhi", historian Ramachandra Guha chronicles India's tumultuous but inspiring journey from 1947 to the early 2000s. He examines how India's leaders and citizens grappled with monumental challenges to build a secular, democratic republic. From the trauma of Partition to economic reforms and religious tensions, Guha provides a comprehensive account of independent India's triumphs and tribulations.
This sweeping history covers watershed moments like India's first general election, wars with Pakistan and China, Indira Gandhi's controversial Emergency rule, the rise of Hindu nationalism, and India's economic liberalization. Guha analyzes the key figures who shaped India's destiny - from Jawaharlal Nehru and Indira Gandhi to opposition leaders and social reformers. He also explores how ordinary Indians experienced these momentous changes and helped forge their nation's path.
While acknowledging India's many shortcomings and ongoing struggles, Guha argues that its survival and progress as a diverse democracy is a remarkable achievement. By examining both high politics and grassroots movements, he illuminates how India navigated immense obstacles to emerge as a rising global power, albeit an imperfect one. "India After Gandhi" offers a definitive account of how the world's largest democracy was built and sustained against incredible odds.
The Birth of a Nation
On August 15, 1947, India gained independence after nearly 200 years of British colonial rule. But the euphoria of freedom was tempered by the trauma of Partition, as British India was divided into two nations - Hindu-majority India and Muslim-majority Pakistan. The partition sparked horrific communal violence and triggered one of the largest mass migrations in human history, with millions of Hindus and Sikhs fleeing to India and Muslims to Pakistan.
India's new leaders faced the monumental task of uniting a vast, diverse nation. The country encompassed numerous linguistic groups, religious communities, and princely states. Many foreign observers doubted whether India could survive as a unified democracy. Winston Churchill had predicted it would descend into chaos and civil war.
Yet India's founding leaders were determined to build a secular, democratic republic that embraced diversity. The new cabinet reflected India's pluralism, with members from five different religions. Mahatma Gandhi, revered as the father of the nation, promoted Hindu-Muslim unity. Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru articulated a vision of a modern, progressive India.
But the wounds of Partition ran deep. Communal riots erupted in many areas. The government struggled to resettle millions of refugees pouring in from Pakistan. In January 1948, Gandhi was assassinated by a Hindu extremist angered by his efforts to protect Muslims. His death was a devastating blow, but also galvanized Indians to reject religious extremism.
Meanwhile, India faced a major crisis in Kashmir. The Muslim-majority princely state's Hindu ruler had acceded to India, but Pakistan disputed this. In October 1947, Pakistani forces invaded Kashmir, leading to the first India-Pakistan war. A UN-brokered ceasefire left Kashmir divided, sowing the seeds for future conflict.
Amid these crises, India's leaders focused on drafting a constitution and preparing for the country's first general election. The constitution, adopted in 1950, enshrined fundamental rights and universal adult suffrage. It also included provisions to uplift historically oppressed groups like Dalits (formerly called "untouchables").
Despite widespread illiteracy and poverty, India successfully held its first national election in 1951-52, with over 170 million voters participating. Nehru's Congress party won a resounding victory. The peaceful transfer of power demonstrated India's democratic credentials to a skeptical world.
In its early years, India pursued a policy of non-alignment in the Cold War while focusing on economic development and social reform at home. Nehru championed a mixed economy model with both public and private sectors. Major irrigation and hydroelectric projects were launched to boost agriculture and industry.
India also took steps to dismantle the caste system and empower women. Laws were passed banning caste discrimination and allowing women to choose their spouses and inherit property. While change was gradual, these moves laid the groundwork for social progress.
By the mid-1950s, India had defied dire predictions about its survival. It had resettled millions of refugees, held free elections, and maintained its territorial integrity. While poverty and other challenges remained immense, India had taken its first steps as an independent nation committed to democracy and pluralism.
Nehru's India: Idealism and Challenges
Jawaharlal Nehru dominated India's political landscape for its first 17 years of independence. As prime minister from 1947 to 1964, he left an indelible imprint on the young nation. Nehru articulated a vision of India as a modern, secular democracy pursuing rapid economic development and social reform.
Domestically, Nehru focused on building India's industrial base and scientific capabilities. He launched ambitious Five-Year Plans to boost economic growth. Major public sector enterprises were established in steel, energy, and other core sectors. Nehru also emphasized education, founding elite institutions like the Indian Institutes of Technology.
In foreign policy, Nehru pursued non-alignment, refusing to ally with either the US or Soviet blocs in the Cold War. He championed anti-colonialism and sought to make India a leader of the developing world. Nehru was a key figure in founding the Non-Aligned Movement of nations not formally aligned with any major power bloc.
However, Nehru's idealistic vision faced many challenges. Poverty and inequality remained widespread despite economic planning. Regional and linguistic tensions threatened national unity. In 1956, India was reorganized into linguistic states to defuse language-based separatism.
Nehru's socialism and secularism also faced opposition from free market advocates and Hindu nationalists. The rise of the right-wing Bharatiya Jana Sangh party reflected growing Hindu nationalist sentiment.
India's relations with China, initially warm, deteriorated over border disputes. In 1962, China launched a surprise attack across the Himalayas, inflicting a humiliating defeat on India. The war shattered Nehru's idealistic worldview and exposed India's military weaknesses.
Despite these setbacks, Nehru remained hugely popular until his death in 1964. His commitment to democracy, secularism and non-alignment had shaped India's political culture. But he left behind unresolved challenges that would test his successors.
The Indira Gandhi Era
After a brief interregnum, Nehru was succeeded as prime minister by his daughter Indira Gandhi in 1966. She would dominate Indian politics for much of the next two decades, leaving a complex and controversial legacy.
Initially seen as a weak leader, Indira Gandhi soon established herself as a strong-willed and populist politician. She outmaneuvered rivals within the Congress party and built a loyal support base among the poor. Her slogan "Garibi Hatao" (Remove Poverty) resonated with millions.
In 1969, Gandhi nationalized major banks to increase credit access for farmers and small businesses. She also abolished the privy purses (payments) given to former princely rulers. These populist moves boosted her image as a champion of the masses.
On the international stage, Gandhi enhanced India's stature. In 1971, she deftly managed a crisis in East Pakistan (now Bangladesh). When Pakistan cracked down on Bengali nationalists, triggering a refugee exodus to India, Gandhi intervened militarily. India's decisive victory led to the creation of Bangladesh and established it as the dominant power in South Asia.
However, Gandhi's rule grew increasingly authoritarian in the 1970s. When courts found her guilty of election malpractices, she imposed a state of Emergency in 1975. Civil liberties were suspended, the press censored, and thousands of opposition leaders jailed. Gandhi justified the move as necessary to restore order, but it dealt a blow to India's democratic credentials.
The Emergency lasted 21 months before Gandhi called elections in 1977, expecting to win. Instead, Indians voted her out of power in a stunning rebuke. The Janata Party, a coalition of opposition groups, formed India's first non-Congress government. But it was riven by infighting and collapsed in 1979.
Gandhi returned to power in 1980 but faced growing challenges. A violent separatist movement erupted in Punjab, demanding an independent Sikh homeland. In 1984, Gandhi ordered a military assault on Sikh militants holed up in the Golden Temple, Sikhism's holiest shrine. The operation succeeded but outraged Sikhs.
In October 1984, Gandhi was assassinated by her Sikh bodyguards in retaliation for the Golden Temple attack. Her death triggered anti-Sikh riots that killed thousands. The violence underscored the dangerous mix of religion and politics that would shape India in coming decades.
Indira Gandhi left behind a mixed legacy. She was hailed for reducing poverty, asserting India's power, and holding the nation together. But she was also criticized for undermining institutions, centralizing power, and stoking communal tensions. Her complex imprint would long outlive her tumultuous reign.
Rajiv Gandhi and the Changing 1980s
Indira Gandhi was succeeded as prime minister by her son Rajiv, a former airline pilot with no political experience. Rajiv initially generated hope with his promise to modernize India and clean up corruption. But his tenure was marked by both change and controversy.
Rajiv pushed for economic liberalization, easing regulations on businesses and encouraging foreign investment. He promoted computerization and telecommunications, laying the groundwork for India's later IT boom. Rajiv also lowered the voting age to 18, expanding youth participation in politics.
In foreign policy, Rajiv improved relations with the US and China. He intervened militarily in Sri Lanka's civil war but the mission ended in failure. Rajiv signed accords to resolve long-standing disputes in Punjab and Assam, though these ultimately proved ineffective.
However, Rajiv's clean image was tarnished by corruption scandals, most notably allegations of kickbacks in a defense deal with Sweden. His government was also criticized for mishandling communal tensions.
In 1986, Rajiv ordered the locks of the disputed Babri Masjid in Ayodhya opened to Hindu worshippers. This inflamed Hindu-Muslim tensions and energized the Hindu nationalist movement. In 1989, Rajiv allowed Hindus to lay the foundation for a temple at the mosque site, further stoking communal passions.
These missteps, along with corruption allegations, led to Rajiv's defeat in the 1989 elections. A coalition government led by V.P. Singh came to power, supported by both the Hindu nationalist BJP and the communist parties.
Singh implemented the recommendations of the Mandal Commission, reserving 27% of government jobs for Other Backward Classes (OBCs). This sparked violent protests by upper caste youth but also mobilized lower castes politically.
Meanwhile, a violent separatist insurgency erupted in Kashmir, further straining India's social fabric. By 1991, India faced its worst economic crisis since independence, forcing it to pledge its gold reserves for an IMF bailout.
Amid this turbulence, Rajiv Gandhi was assassinated in May 1991 by Sri Lankan Tamil militants while campaigning. His death marked the end of the Nehru-Gandhi dynasty's direct rule and ushered in a new era of coalition politics.
Economic Reforms and Coalition Era
The 1991 economic crisis proved to be a watershed moment. The newly elected Congress government, led by P.V. Narasimha Rao, launched sweeping economic reforms. Finance Minister Manmohan Singh dismantled the "license raj" system of permits and quotas, devalued the rupee, cut tariffs and opened up to foreign investment.
These reforms unleashed India's entrepreneurial energies and laid the foundation for rapid growth in coming decades. The IT and pharmaceutical sectors boomed. A new urban middle class emerged, armed with credit cards and mobile phones. But critics argued the reforms mainly benefited the elite while neglecting the rural poor.
The 1990s also saw the rise of lower caste parties and the decline of Congress dominance. Regional parties gained strength, making coalition governments the norm. The Hindu nationalist BJP emerged as the main national alternative to Congress.
In 1992, Hindu militants demolished the Babri Masjid in Ayodhya, triggering nationwide riots. This galvanized Hindu nationalist sentiment but also alienated minorities. The BJP rode this wave to power in 1996, though its government lasted only 13 days.
After two short-lived governments, BJP leader Atal Bihari Vajpayee formed a stable coalition in 1998. Vajpayee ordered nuclear tests in 1998, drawing international sanctions but boosting nationalist pride. He also pushed privatization and infrastructure development.
In 1999, India fought a limited war with Pakistan in Kargil, Kashmir. India's victory burnished Vajpayee's image as a strong leader. He also made bold peace overtures to Pakistan, though these were derailed by terrorist attacks.
The Vajpayee years saw rapid economic growth but also rising inequality and communal tensions. In 2002, anti-Muslim riots in Gujarat killed over 1,000 people. The state's BJP government was accused of abetting the violence.
In 2004, the BJP-led coalition unexpectedly lost to a Congress-led alliance. Manmohan Singh became prime minister, with Congress president Sonia Gandhi as the power behind the throne. The new government focused on inclusive growth through welfare schemes while maintaining economic reforms.
By the early 2000s, India had emerged as a rising global power, with a fast-growing economy and increasing geopolitical clout. But it still grappled with poverty, corruption, and social divisions. The world's largest democracy remained a work in progress.
Social and Cultural Transformations
India's economy and politics weren't the only spheres seeing major changes in the decades after independence. Indian society and culture also underwent significant transformations, though often in fits and starts.
One of the most important changes was the gradual breakdown of the rigid caste system. The constitution banned caste discrimination and the government implemented affirmative action for Dalits and other historically oppressed groups. While caste prejudice persisted, especially in rural areas, there was increased social mobility and political assertion by lower castes.
The status of women also saw improvements, albeit slowly. Laws were passed giving women equal inheritance rights and banning practices like child marriage and dowry. Female literacy and workforce participation increased. Women gained more visibility in politics, with Indira Gandhi becoming prime minister and many others serving as chief ministers and cabinet members.
However, women continued to face discrimination, violence and constraints on their freedoms. Female infanticide, dowry deaths and sexual assault remained serious issues. The declining sex ratio in some states pointed to persistent son preference.
India's religious landscape evolved in complex ways. While the constitution enshrined secularism, religion remained a powerful social and political force. Hindu nationalism gained ground, especially from the 1980s. Many Muslims felt marginalized and insecure, particularly after communal riots. Christianity spread among some Dalit communities, while Sikhism asserted a more distinct identity.
Rapid urbanization changed the character of Indian society. Cities expanded dramatically, with migrants pouring in from villages. This created new economic opportunities but also urban squalor and social dislocation. Rural-urban and class divides widened.
India's cultural realm saw an outpouring of creativity. Literature in English and regional languages flourished. Indian cinema, especially Bollywood, became a cultural juggernaut. Classical music and dance forms were rejuvenated, while new fusion genres emerged.
The advent of television in the 1980s revolutionized mass media. In the 1990s, satellite TV and later the internet connected Indians to global popular culture. This sparked debates about westernization and erosion of traditional values.
Education expanded massively, with literacy rates rising from 18% in 1951 to 65% in 2001. But quality remained uneven, with a small elite receiving world-class education while millions made do with poorly resourced government schools.
Sports, especially cricket, became a national obsession. India's 1983 cricket World Cup victory was a watershed moment of national pride. Later, the Indian Premier League turned cricket into a lucrative industry.
Environmental awareness grew, but so did pollution and ecological damage. Rapid development took a heavy toll on forests, rivers and air quality. Climate change emerged as a major challenge.
Overall, post-independence India saw a gradual loosening of social hierarchies and cultural norms. But change was uneven, with islands of cosmopolitanism amid a still largely conservative society. Tradition and modernity coexisted in sometimes uneasy ways.
Foreign Policy and Security Challenges
India's foreign policy in the decades after independence was shaped by its non-aligned stance and desire for strategic autonomy. Under Nehru, India refused to ally with either the US or Soviet blocs, instead championing the Non-Aligned Movement of developing nations.
This approach earned India respect in the Third World but also criticism from the West. Relations with the US were often strained, especially as India tilted towards the Soviet Union from the 1970s. The USSR became India's largest arms supplier and diplomatic backer.
China loomed large in India's strategic calculus. Initial bonhomie in the 1950s gave way to rivalry and conflict. The 1962 border war with China was a humiliating defeat for India. Though relations improved by the 1980s, mutual suspicion persisted. India watched warily as China's economic and military power grew rapidly.
Pakistan remained India's primary security challenge. The two nations fought wars in 1947, 1965 and 1971 over Kashmir and other issues. The 1971 war, leading to Bangladesh's creation, established India's military supremacy. But Pakistan's acquisition of nuclear weapons in the 1980s changed the strategic equation.
From the late 1980s, Pakistan began supporting militants in Kashmir, leading to a long-running insurgency. Cross-border terrorism became a major threat, exemplified by attacks like the 2001 Indian Parliament strike and 2008 Mumbai attacks.
India developed its own nuclear weapons capability, conducting tests in 1974 and 1998. While this boosted India's strategic profile, it also led to international sanctions. India refused to sign the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, arguing it was discriminatory.
By the 1990s, with the Cold War over, India began reorienting its foreign policy. Relations with the US improved significantly, culminating in a landmark civil nuclear deal in 2008. India also strengthened ties with Japan, Australia and Southeast Asian nations as part of its "Look East" policy.
India's economic rise enhanced its global stature. It joined groupings like BRICS (with Brazil, Russia, China and South Africa) and lobbied for a permanent UN Security Council seat. But territorial disputes with China and Pakistan remained unresolved.
Internally, India faced several security challenges. A violent Maoist insurgency affected large parts of central and eastern India. The northeast saw multiple ethnic insurgencies. Terrorism by Islamist and other groups posed a persistent threat.
India's military modernized significantly but struggled with procurement delays and civil-military tensions. The armed forces remained firmly under civilian control, with no coups unlike in neighboring Pakistan.
Overall, India pursued a pragmatic foreign policy aimed at maximizing its strategic autonomy and economic interests. It sought to increase its global influence while managing complex relationships with world powers and regional rivals.
Achievements and Challenges
As India marked 60 years of independence in 2007, it could look back on remarkable achievements as well as persistent challenges.
On the positive side, India had defied dire predictions about its survival as a unified democracy. Despite its immense diversity and poverty, India had held regular free elections and peaceful transfers of power (barring the brief Emergency interlude). Its democratic institutions, while flawed, had proven resilient.
India's economy had made great strides, especially after the 1991 reforms. GDP growth averaged over 6% annually in the 1990s and 2000s. Poverty rates declined significantly, though remained high in absolute terms. A large middle class emerged, and Indian companies became globally competitive in sectors like IT and pharmaceuticals.
In foreign policy, India established itself as a rising power with growing economic and strategic clout. Its soft power also expanded through its cultural exports and diaspora's success.
Socially, India saw gradual progress in reducing caste and gender discrimination, expanding education, and fostering a vibrant civil society. Democratic politics allowed marginalized groups to assert themselves and gain a share of power.
However, India continued to face formidable challenges. Poverty remained widespread, with hundreds of millions still living on less than $2 a day. Malnutrition rates were worse than in many poorer countries.
Inequality had widened, with the gains of economic growth accruing disproportionately to the upper and middle classes. Rural distress remained acute, with farmer suicides making headlines.
Corruption was endemic, corroding public institutions and undermining development efforts. The quality of public services like health and education remained abysmal for most Indians.
Communal tensions persisted, with periodic outbreaks of Hindu-Muslim violence. The rise of Hindu nationalism posed a challenge to India's secular fabric. Regional separatist movements, while diminished, had not disappeared entirely.
Environmental degradation accelerated, with air and water pollution reaching crisis levels in many areas. Climate change posed a major threat to India's food and water security.
In foreign policy, the unresolved disputes with Pakistan and China remained potential flashpoints. Cross-border terrorism was an ongoing menace.
Nonetheless, the overall trajectory was one of progress, albeit uneven and incomplete. India had proven skeptics wrong about its survival but still had a long way to go in fulfilling its potential. The world's largest democracy remained a work in progress - chaotic and contradictory, but also resilient and full of promise.
Conclusion
India's journey since independence in 1947 has been one of triumph and tribulation. From the trauma of Partition to economic reforms and religious strife, the country has weathered immense challenges to emerge as the world's largest democracy and a rising global power.
The achievements are remarkable - regular free elections, a vibrant free press, civilian control over the military, rapid economic growth, and expanding opportunities for hundreds of millions. India has given voice and representation to an incredibly diverse populace speaking hundreds of languages. It has fostered a distinct national identity while preserving regional cultures.
Yet the challenges remain daunting. Poverty, inequality, corruption, communal tensions, and environmental degradation continue to bedevil the country. The ideals of secularism and socialism championed by its founding fathers have come under strain. Regional disparities have widened even as the overall economy has grown.
India's democracy, while resilient, has shown authoritarian tendencies at times. Its institutions, though functional, are often inefficient and compromised. The country's diversity remains both a strength and a source of conflict.
But the story of India is ultimately one of hope and promise. Time and again, it has overcome crises that observers predicted would tear it apart. Its people have repeatedly demonstrated their commitment to democracy and pluralism. New generations of Indians are finding innovative solutions to age-old problems.
As it moves past 70 years of independence, India stands at a crossroads. Its economic and geopolitical clout is growing, but so are internal divisions and inequalities. The choices it makes in coming years - on economic policy, social inclusion, environmental sustainability and relations with neighbors - will determine whether it can fulfill its immense potential.
India's success as a diverse, democratic nation of over a billion people is already a monumental achievement. If it can address its myriad challenges while staying true to its founding ideals, India's rise could reshape the global order in the 21st century. The world's largest democracy remains an unfolding experiment, but one whose outcome will have profound implications far beyond its borders.