Introduction
Napoleon Bonaparte is one of the most fascinating and influential figures in European history. From humble beginnings on the island of Corsica, he rose to become Emperor of France and conqueror of much of Europe. His military genius, political acumen, and lasting impact on law and government continue to captivate historians and the public alike.
In "Napoleon the Great," acclaimed historian Andrew Roberts provides a comprehensive and engaging account of Napoleon's remarkable life and career. Drawing on extensive research and Napoleon's own letters, Roberts paints a vivid portrait of the man behind the legend - his strengths and flaws, triumphs and failures, and complex personality.
This book takes readers on an epic journey through Napoleon's life, from his youth in Corsica to his final days in exile on Saint Helena. Along the way, we witness his meteoric rise through the ranks of the French army, his seizure of power in France, his military campaigns across Europe and beyond, and the ultimate downfall of his empire. Roberts provides rich detail on Napoleon's major battles, political maneuvers, and personal relationships, bringing this extraordinary historical figure to life.
More than just a military biography, this work explores Napoleon's lasting legacy in areas like law, education, and statecraft. It offers a nuanced view of a man who was both a product of the French Revolution and a harbinger of the modern age. Whether you're a history buff or just curious to learn more about one of the most famous men who ever lived, "Napoleon the Great" provides an illuminating and entertaining look at the life of this legendary leader.
Early Life and Military Career
Humble Beginnings in Corsica
Napoleon Bonaparte was born on August 15, 1769 on the Mediterranean island of Corsica. Interestingly, Corsica had only become part of France the year before, having previously been under Italian control. So the future Emperor of France actually came from Italian roots and was born Napoleone di Buonaparte.
Napoleon's family held a respectable position in Corsican society, but they were not wealthy nobility. His father Carlo worked to secure the family's status and provide opportunities for his children. In 1771, Carlo successfully applied for the Buonapartes to be recognized as Corsican nobility. This opened doors for young Napoleon, allowing him to attend the prestigious Royal Military School of Brienne-le-Château in mainland France.
A Determined Student
At military school, Napoleon stood out as a hardworking and ambitious student. He faced teasing from classmates for being Corsican and viewed as "fake" nobility, but this only fueled his determination to prove himself. Napoleon threw himself into his studies, working eight hours a day to master subjects like mathematics, Latin, history, and military tactics.
It was during this time that Napoleon learned to speak French, though he retained a Corsican accent his entire life. His diligence paid off - at just 16 years old, Napoleon became one of the youngest officers in the French army and the only Corsican at the time to hold a coveted artillery commission.
Rising Through the Ranks
Napoleon's early military career coincided with the tumultuous period of the French Revolution. Though initially torn between his Corsican identity and loyalty to France, Napoleon ultimately pledged his allegiance to the revolutionary cause. He supported the overthrow of the monarchy and joined the Jacobins, seeing an opportunity for advancement amid the political chaos.
His big break came during the Siege of Toulon in 1793. As artillery commander, Napoleon played a crucial role in capturing this strategic port city from pro-royalist forces. He demonstrated impressive tactical skill, helping lead an assault on a key fort and then using the position to bombard enemy ships. Napoleon's actions were vital to the French victory.
Reports from Toulon describe Napoleon as an exceptionally intelligent officer. His letters to superiors reveal a meticulous and natural leader. This successful campaign earned Napoleon promotion to the rank of general at just 24 years old - a remarkable achievement that set the stage for his future rise to power.
The Italian Campaign
A Bold Plan
In 1796, Napoleon was given command of the Army of Italy. Though he was just 26 years old, Napoleon had spent years studying the landscape and military situation in northern Italy. He devised an ambitious plan to push through Piedmont, drive back the Austrians, and capture their fortresses - all while outnumbered by the enemy forces.
Napoleon would have only 50,000 French troops under his command, facing a combined Austrian and Piedmontese force of 80,000. But he was confident in his strategy of exploiting the enemy's divided communication and supply lines.
Decisive Victories
Napoleon's Italian campaign got off to a brilliant start. In May 1796, he led 3,500 French soldiers to victory against 9,500 Austrians at the Battle of Lodi. This triumph on the bridge at Lodi would go down as Napoleon's first major victory.
The following month, Napoleon began the Siege of Mantua, which would last until February 1797. His eventual success in this long siege made headlines back in Paris and further enhanced his reputation.
Crossing the Alps
In March 1797, Napoleon embarked on one of his most famous exploits - crossing the Alps with his army to threaten Vienna. This daring maneuver forced Austria to agree to a peace treaty. Napoleon's Italian campaign had secured large swaths of northern Italy for France and made him a national hero.
The speed and decisiveness of Napoleon's victories in Italy demonstrated his military genius. He showed a talent for rapid maneuvering, concentration of forces, and exploiting the enemy's weaknesses. The campaign also revealed Napoleon's ability to inspire loyalty and fighting spirit in his troops through his leadership and proclamations.
The Egyptian Expedition
An Ambitious but Flawed Campaign
Fresh off his triumphs in Italy, Napoleon embarked on an ambitious campaign in Egypt in 1798. The expedition had multiple aims - to disrupt British access to India, to bring Enlightenment ideals to the region, and to enhance French prestige. Napoleon set sail in May with 38,000 troops and a corps of scientists and scholars.
The campaign started promisingly with the capture of Alexandria. But as the French army marched toward Cairo, the harsh desert conditions took a severe toll. Hundreds of soldiers were blinded by the sun, others contracted diseases like malaria, and some even committed suicide rather than continue the grueling march.
Battles and Setbacks
Napoleon scored a victory against Mamluk forces at the Battle of the Pyramids in July 1798. But his fleet was then destroyed by the British navy at the Battle of the Nile, cutting off the French army's connection to Europe.
The campaign continued with mixed results. Napoleon captured Gaza and Jaffa, but at a high cost in French lives. Many of his soldiers contracted plague in Jaffa. An attempt to take the fortress of Acre ended in failure after a two-month siege.
Scientific Endeavors
Despite the military setbacks, the Egyptian expedition did yield some important scientific and cultural discoveries. Napoleon had brought along a team of scholars and researchers who studied the country's ancient monuments and artifacts. Their work led to breakthroughs like the discovery of the Rosetta Stone, which would later allow scholars to decipher Egyptian hieroglyphs.
Napoleon himself took great interest in Egypt's history and culture. He visited ancient sites and encouraged the study of the country's past. This blend of military campaign and scientific expedition reflected Napoleon's Enlightenment ideals and his desire to be seen as more than just a conqueror.
A Strategic Retreat
By mid-1799, with no reinforcements coming and his army depleted by combat and disease, Napoleon made the decision to withdraw from Egypt. He left much of his force behind under the command of General Kléber and returned to France. While the Egyptian campaign was ultimately a strategic failure, it added to Napoleon's mystique and did not seem to damage his popularity at home.
The expedition revealed both Napoleon's ambition and some of his limitations. His inability to overcome the logistical challenges of campaigning in a harsh, unfamiliar environment showed that even his military genius had its limits. But his promotion of scientific inquiry alongside military conquest hinted at the type of enlightened ruler he aspired to be.
Seizing Power in France
Return to a Nation in Crisis
Napoleon returned to France in October 1799 to find the country in a state of political and economic turmoil. The government was plagued by corruption, inflation was rampant, and there were pro-royalist uprisings in parts of the country. Many saw Napoleon as a potential savior who could restore order and stability.
The Coup of 18 Brumaire
Seizing this opportunity, Napoleon joined a group of conspirators planning to overthrow the government. On November 9-10, 1799 (18-19 Brumaire by the French Republican calendar), they carried out a coup d'état against the ruling Directory.
The coup did not go entirely smoothly. When Napoleon tried to address the Council of Five Hundred (one of the legislative bodies), he was shouted down and physically threatened by angry deputies. His brother Lucien, who was president of the Council, played a crucial role in turning the situation around. He dramatically declared to the soldiers outside that deputies inside were threatening Napoleon with daggers - a fabrication that convinced the troops to disperse the Council.
Establishing the Consulate
In the aftermath of the coup, a new government called the Consulate was established with Napoleon as First Consul. Though nominally a republic, real power was concentrated in Napoleon's hands. He quickly consolidated his position through a combination of political maneuvering, popular reforms, and military victories.
Napoleon's assumption of power marked the end of the French Revolution and the beginning of the Napoleonic era. He presented himself as the heir to revolutionary ideals while also offering the stability many French citizens craved after years of upheaval.
Reforms and the Napoleonic Code
Sweeping Changes
As First Consul and later as Emperor, Napoleon instituted wide-ranging reforms that reshaped French government and society. He centralized the administration, reformed the tax system, and established the Bank of France to stabilize the economy. Napoleon also made peace with the Catholic Church through the Concordat of 1801, while maintaining the principle of religious tolerance.
The Civil Code
Perhaps Napoleon's most lasting domestic achievement was the creation of the Napoleonic Code (later known as the French Civil Code). This comprehensive legal framework replaced the patchwork of laws and customs that had previously governed French civil life. The Code enshrined many revolutionary principles like equality before the law and freedom of religion.
Key features of the Napoleonic Code included:
- Elimination of privileges based on birth
- Separation of church and state
- Standardization of the legal system across France
- Protection of private property rights
- Divorce by mutual consent
The Code had a profound influence not just in France but across Europe and beyond. Many countries adopted similar legal systems based on the Napoleonic model. It remains the basis of civil law in France and several other countries to this day.
Education and Infrastructure
Napoleon also focused on reforming education, establishing a system of secondary schools called lycées and reorganizing higher education. He invested in infrastructure projects like roads and canals to improve transportation and commerce.
These reforms helped modernize France and laid the groundwork for its emergence as a major industrial power in the 19th century. They also served to strengthen Napoleon's hold on power by winning him support from key segments of French society.
The Path to Empire
From Consul to Emperor
Napoleon's position as First Consul was initially for a term of ten years, but in 1802 he was made Consul for Life. This was a step toward monarchy in all but name. Finally, in 1804, Napoleon crowned himself Emperor of the French in an elaborate ceremony at Notre Dame Cathedral.
The coronation was a carefully choreographed event designed to legitimize Napoleon's rule. By crowning himself rather than allowing the Pope to do so, Napoleon signaled that his power came from his own achievements and the will of the people, not from divine right.
Building a New Aristocracy
As Emperor, Napoleon created a new nobility to replace the old aristocracy that had been swept away by the Revolution. This new elite was based on merit rather than birth, with titles awarded for military and civil service to the state. Napoleon also revived many of the trappings of monarchy, including a lavish court at the Tuileries Palace.
The Continental System
On the international stage, Napoleon sought to cement French dominance through a combination of military conquest and economic warfare. A key part of this strategy was the Continental System, a large-scale embargo against British trade. Napoleon hoped to weaken Britain economically by cutting it off from European markets.
The Continental System required the cooperation (willing or forced) of other European nations. This led Napoleon to intervene more aggressively in the affairs of neighboring countries, either annexing them directly or installing puppet regimes. The system ultimately proved difficult to enforce and contributed to tensions with other European powers.
Major Military Campaigns
Austerlitz: The Battle of Three Emperors
One of Napoleon's greatest victories came at the Battle of Austerlitz on December 2, 1805. Facing a combined Austro-Russian army led by Tsar Alexander I and Holy Roman Emperor Francis II, Napoleon employed brilliant tactics to decisively defeat a numerically superior force.
Napoleon deliberately weakened his right flank, enticing the Allies to attack it. When they did so, he launched a surprise assault on the Allied center, splitting their army in two. The battle ended with over 25,000 Allied casualties compared to just 9,000 French losses. Austerlitz cemented Napoleon's reputation as a military genius and led to a peace treaty highly favorable to France.
The Invasion of Russia
Napoleon's most ambitious and ultimately disastrous campaign was the invasion of Russia in 1812. Frustrated by Tsar Alexander's refusal to comply with the Continental System, Napoleon assembled a massive army of over 600,000 men to force Russia into line.
The campaign started well, with the French advancing deep into Russian territory. But the Russians employed a scorched earth strategy, denying the French supplies and avoiding major battles. Napoleon captured Moscow in September, but found the city abandoned and burning. With winter approaching and his supply lines overstretched, he was forced to order a retreat.
The withdrawal turned into a nightmare as the army faced bitter cold, starvation, and constant harassment from Russian forces. By the time the remnants of the Grand Army straggled back to friendly territory, hundreds of thousands of men had died. The Russian campaign marked the beginning of the end for Napoleon's empire, showing that there were limits to even his military prowess.
Waterloo: The Final Battle
Napoleon's final campaign came in 1815 after his return from exile on Elba. Facing a coalition of European powers determined to end his rule once and for all, Napoleon gambled on a rapid strike against Anglo-Allied forces in Belgium before they could unite with approaching Prussian armies.
The decisive battle came at Waterloo on June 18, 1815. Napoleon's tactics were not up to his usual standard, perhaps due to illness. He delayed his main attack, allowing the Anglo-Allied commander the Duke of Wellington to strengthen his defensive position. When Prussian forces arrived late in the day, the French army collapsed.
Waterloo marked the final end of Napoleon's rule and his career as a military commander. It stands as one of history's most famous and consequential battles, ushering in a long period of relative peace in Europe.
Personal Life and Relationships
Marriage to Josephine
Napoleon's personal life was as dramatic as his public career. His first marriage was to Joséphine de Beauharnais, a widow six years his senior. Napoleon fell deeply in love with Josephine, but their relationship was tumultuous. She had affairs while he was away on campaign, which devastated Napoleon when he found out.
Despite the rocky start, Napoleon and Josephine's marriage settled into a partnership. She played an important role as First Lady of France, known for her charm and style. However, her inability to provide Napoleon with an heir became a major issue as he consolidated his power as Emperor.
Divorce and Remarriage
In 1810, Napoleon made the painful decision to divorce Josephine in order to marry Marie Louise, daughter of the Austrian Emperor. This was a purely political match aimed at cementing an alliance with Austria and producing an heir. The marriage succeeded in that aim - Marie Louise gave birth to a son, Napoleon II, in 1811.
Napoleon maintained a cordial relationship with Josephine after their divorce. He ensured she kept her titles and properties, and she remained an important figure in French society until her death in 1814.
Family Dynamics
Napoleon's relationships with his large extended family were complex. He placed his siblings on the thrones of conquered territories, creating a network of Bonaparte monarchs across Europe. But this often led to tensions as his brothers and sisters did not always govern as he wished.
Napoleon was particularly close to his stepson Eugène de Beauharnais, Josephine's son from her first marriage. Eugène served loyally as Napoleon's viceroy in Italy and remained devoted to him even after the divorce from Josephine.
The Fall of the Empire
Turning of the Tide
After the disaster in Russia, Napoleon's enemies sensed weakness and formed a new coalition against him. In 1813, he suffered a major defeat at the Battle of Leipzig, known as the "Battle of Nations" due to the number of countries involved. This forced Napoleon to withdraw French forces back within France's borders.
The First Abdication
In early 1814, Allied armies invaded France from multiple directions. Despite some initial successes in defending French territory, Napoleon was eventually forced to abdicate in April 1814. He was exiled to the island of Elba, while the Bourbon monarchy was restored in France under Louis XVIII.
The Hundred Days
Napoleon's exile didn't last long. In February 1815, he escaped from Elba and returned to France. Soldiers sent to arrest him instead rallied to his side, and he was able to enter Paris and reclaim power without firing a shot. This began the period known as the Hundred Days.
However, the other European powers were determined not to allow Napoleon to reestablish his empire. After his final defeat at Waterloo, Napoleon abdicated for a second time. This time, he was exiled to the remote island of Saint Helena in the South Atlantic, where he would spend the rest of his life.
Legacy and Historical Impact
Military Innovation
Napoleon's campaigns revolutionized warfare and influenced military thinking for generations. He emphasized mobility and concentration of force, often achieving victory through rapid maneuvers that caught enemies off guard. His organizational skills allowed him to efficiently move and supply large armies.
Political and Legal Legacy
The Napoleonic Code had a lasting impact on legal systems around the world. Napoleon's administrative reforms centralized and modernized the French state, creating a model that influenced many other countries. His reign also spread revolutionary ideals of equality and meritocracy across Europe, even as he himself moved away from pure republican principles.
Cultural Influence
Napoleon became a larger-than-life figure in European culture, inspiring countless works of art, literature, and music. His dramatic rise and fall captured the public imagination and continues to fascinate people to this day. The term "Napoleonic" entered the language to describe ambitious or domineering personalities.
Reshaping of Europe
Napoleon's conquests and the reaction against them reshaped the map of Europe. The dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire, the consolidation of German states, and the stirring of nationalist sentiments in many countries can all be traced in part to the Napoleonic Wars. The Congress of Vienna, which redrew Europe's borders after Napoleon's defeat, established a balance of power that largely held until World War I.
Final Years on Saint Helena
Life in Exile
Napoleon spent his final years as a prisoner on the island of Saint Helena, a remote British outpost in the South Atlantic. He lived in a damp and windswept house called Longwood, surrounded by a small retinue of loyal followers who had chosen to accompany him into exile.
Life on Saint Helena was a far cry from the imperial splendor Napoleon had known. He chafed under the strict security measures imposed by his British guards, particularly the officious governor of the island, Hudson Lowe. Napoleon's health gradually declined, likely due to a combination of the harsh climate and possibly stomach cancer.
Writing His Memoirs
Despite his circumstances, Napoleon remained mentally active during his exile. He spent much of his time dictating his memoirs and commentaries on military and political affairs to his companions. These writings, later published as the Memorial de Sainte-Hélène, helped shape the Napoleonic legend and his historical legacy.
In his memoirs, Napoleon sought to justify his actions and portray himself as a champion of revolutionary ideals who had been betrayed by circumstances and the machinations of his enemies. While certainly biased, these accounts provide valuable insights into Napoleon's thinking and self-image.
Death and Burial
Napoleon died on May 5, 1821, at the age of 51. His last words were reportedly "France, armée, tête d'armée, Joséphine" ("France, army, head of the army, Josephine"), reflecting the central focuses of his life. He was initially buried on Saint Helena, but in 1840 his remains were returned to France and interred with great ceremony at Les Invalides in Paris.
The return of Napoleon's ashes to France, nearly 20 years after his death, sparked a revival of the Napoleonic cult. Even in death, he remained a powerful symbol capable of stirring strong emotions among both admirers and detractors.
Conclusion
Napoleon Bonaparte's life reads like an epic novel, filled with dramatic triumphs and crushing defeats. From his humble origins in Corsica to the pinnacle of power as Emperor of France, and finally to lonely exile on Saint Helena, his story continues to captivate us two centuries later.
Andrew Roberts' biography "Napoleon the Great" provides a comprehensive and nuanced portrait of this complex historical figure. Napoleon emerges as a man of extraordinary talents and equally outsized flaws. His military genius, political acumen, and drive for glory reshaped Europe and left an indelible mark on world history.
Yet Napoleon was also capable of grave miscalculations, as seen in the disastrous Russian campaign and his final gamble at Waterloo. His ambition and belief in his own destiny often blinded him to the limits of what was possible, even for a man of his abilities.
Napoleon's legacy is mixed and continues to be debated by historians. He spread revolutionary ideals and modernizing reforms across Europe, but did so through conquest and authoritarian rule. He championed meritocracy and legal equality, yet created a new aristocracy and curtailed some civil liberties. He is remembered as both a liberator and a tyrant, often in the same regions.
What is undeniable is Napoleon's profound impact on his era and beyond. The Napoleonic Wars redrew the map of Europe and influenced the development of nationalism in many countries. His legal and administrative reforms provided models that were widely emulated. And the Napoleonic legend - of the young conqueror who rose from obscurity to master a continent - has inspired countless individuals, for better or worse.
In the end, Napoleon's life serves as a cautionary tale about the seductive yet dangerous nature of power and ambition. His meteoric rise and dramatic fall continue to offer lessons on leadership, strategy, and the forces that shape history. Whether viewed as hero or villain, Napoleon Bonaparte remains one of the most fascinating and influential figures of the modern age.