Nelson Rockefeller was one of the most influential public figures in 20th century American history. Born into extraordinary wealth and privilege as the grandson of oil tycoon John D. Rockefeller Sr., Nelson forged his own path as a businessman, philanthropist, and politician. This book by Richard Norton Smith provides a comprehensive look at Rockefeller's eventful life and lasting impact.
Early Life and Background
Nelson Aldrich Rockefeller was born on July 8, 1909 in Bar Harbor, Maine. He was the third of six children born to John D. Rockefeller Jr. and Abby Aldrich Rockefeller. The Rockefeller family was one of the wealthiest and most prominent in America, having built a vast fortune through Standard Oil.
While Nelson grew up with immense privilege, his early life was not without challenges. He struggled with dyslexia, which made his schoolwork very difficult. Fortunately, he had access to excellent tutors and attended the progressive Lincoln School, which allowed students to build customized curricula around their interests and learn through hands-on experiences. This supportive educational environment helped Nelson manage his learning disability and excel in subjects like math, science, and biology.
Even as a child, Nelson displayed boundless energy and an attention-seeking personality that would define much of his later life and career. He developed passions for art, architecture, and photography during his time at Dartmouth College, where he earned the nickname "Rocky."
Early Career and Interest in Latin America
After graduating from Dartmouth, Nelson married his longtime sweetheart Mary Todhunter Clark (known as Tod) in 1930. The newlyweds then embarked on a 10-month honeymoon trip around the world. Upon returning in 1931, Nelson began working with his mother Abby to establish the Museum of Modern Art (MOMA) in New York City. This aligned perfectly with Nelson's lifelong passion for art.
As chairman of MOMA's Junior Advisory Committee, Nelson helped introduce American audiences to modern artists like Picasso, Matisse, and Diego Rivera. At the same time, he assisted his father in developing Rockefeller Center, a massive commercial real estate project in Manhattan. Nelson was heavily involved in the artistic and architectural aspects of both MOMA and Rockefeller Center.
In the mid-1930s, Nelson began to take an interest in Latin America after visiting Venezuela on behalf of Creole Petroleum, a family oil business subsidiary. Seeing the stark inequality in the region, Nelson launched initiatives aimed at improving living standards and economic development. He established the Venezuelan Basic Economy Corporation (VBEC) to help diversify the economy beyond oil and attract more tourism.
Nelson's diplomatic skills and Latin America projects caught the attention of President Franklin D. Roosevelt. In 1940, FDR appointed Nelson as Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs (CIAA), marking his entry into politics and government service. In this role, Nelson focused on improving U.S. relations with Latin American countries and countering Nazi influence in the region as World War II intensified.
Rise in Washington During World War II
As Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs during World War II, Nelson Rockefeller's influence in Washington grew substantially. His office expanded from 75 to 1,400 staff members as the U.S. government prioritized securing Latin American support against the Axis powers. Nelson advocated for increased foreign aid and public health campaigns to improve living standards in Latin America.
President Roosevelt approved a $25 million budget for Nelson's Latin American programs and promoted him to Assistant Secretary of State for Latin American Affairs. In this expanded role, Nelson worked to bring Latin American countries into regional defense agreements and lobbied for Argentina to join the newly-formed United Nations, despite concerns about the country harboring Nazi sympathizers.
Post-War Business and Philanthropy
After leaving his government position when the Truman administration took office in 1945, Nelson returned to New York to lead Rockefeller Center and further establish MOMA as a cornerstone of the city's art world. However, he remained committed to economic development work in Latin America.
In 1946, Nelson founded the American International Association for Economic and Social Development (AIA) as a charitable organization focused on improving living conditions in Latin America. To fund the AIA's work, he also created the for-profit International Basic Economy Corporation (IBEC). Through these organizations, Nelson launched initiatives to improve agricultural practices, expand food distribution networks, and slow the growth of urban slums in countries like Brazil.
While these efforts faced many challenges and IBEC took over a decade to turn a profit, they reflected Nelson's lifelong interest in leveraging business and philanthropy to drive social progress. This approach of combining capitalism with social responsibility would remain a hallmark of Nelson's worldview throughout his career.
Bringing the UN to New York
One of Nelson's most notable accomplishments in the immediate post-war period was helping secure New York City as the headquarters for the newly-formed United Nations. In 1946, Nelson learned that New York was competing against other major U.S. cities to host the UN. Seeing an opportunity to boost his hometown's prestige, Nelson sprang into action.
Working with architect Wallace Harrison, Nelson quickly developed plans for an impressive UN complex along the East River in Manhattan. He then leveraged his vast network of connections to build support for the New York bid. The clinching factor was Nelson convincing his father John D. Rockefeller Jr. to donate $8 million to purchase the necessary land.
Securing the UN headquarters was a major coup that enhanced New York's global status and demonstrated Nelson's dealmaking abilities. It also increased his popularity and influence in the city, setting the stage for his later political career as governor.
Return to Government Under Truman
As the Cold War intensified in the early 1950s, Nelson found another opportunity to reenter government service. President Harry Truman appointed him to the International Development Advisory Board in 1950. In this role, Nelson helped create the Partners in Progress initiative, which promoted job training, education, public health improvements, free trade, and foreign investment in developing nations.
Nelson saw these efforts as critical for showcasing the benefits of capitalism and democracy in the ideological struggle against communism. His work in this period presaged many of the international development approaches the U.S. would pursue in subsequent decades.
Clashes with Republicans Under Eisenhower
When Republican Dwight D. Eisenhower became president in 1953, Nelson initially joined the administration as Under Secretary of the newly-created Department of Health, Education and Welfare (HEW). However, Nelson soon found himself at odds with the increasingly conservative direction of the Republican Party.
While Nelson and Eisenhower shared some views on expanding social programs and resisting cuts to education and healthcare, most Republican legislators opposed such policies. Nelson's proposals to add millions of jobs in social security and increase benefits were met with resistance from those advocating for smaller government. Frustrated by his inability to drive major reforms, Nelson resigned from HEW in 1954.
The Special Studies Project
After leaving the Eisenhower administration, Nelson was authorized to lead an important research initiative called the Special Studies Project. This effort brought together leading thinkers from academia, science, business, and other fields to examine major issues facing the United States in areas like national security, government operations, and economic policy.
The project produced influential reports and recommendations that would shape policy debates for years to come. It also introduced Nelson to Harvard professor Henry Kissinger, who would go on to play a major role in U.S. foreign policy. Many ideas developed through the Special Studies Project were later implemented by presidents from John F. Kennedy to Ronald Reagan.
Becoming Governor of New York
In 1958, Nelson Rockefeller decided to run for governor of New York after polls showed he had higher approval ratings than other potential candidates. He conducted an energetic campaign, traveling over 8,500 miles across the state and giving 135 speeches.
Nelson's natural charisma helped overcome his struggles with prepared speeches due to dyslexia. His moderate views and reputation as a problem-solver appealed to voters across the political spectrum. When he won the election, Nelson secured support from a remarkably broad coalition, including many registered Democrats and one-third of New York's Black and Jewish voters.
As governor, Nelson pursued an ambitious agenda focused on reforming and expanding state services in areas like education, transportation, housing, and healthcare. His election as New York's governor also fueled speculation about a potential presidential run, given that several past presidents had used the office as a stepping stone to the White House.
1960 Presidential Ambitions Thwarted
Despite his popularity and the precedent of New York governors becoming president, Nelson Rockefeller's presidential ambitions were stymied in 1960 by opposition from Republican Party leaders. While Nelson was receiving extensive media coverage as a "Republican FDR" and political wunderkind, the party establishment firmly backed Richard Nixon as their nominee.
The rift between Nelson and Republican leaders stemmed from ideological differences and Nelson's unwillingness to compromise his moderate views to align with the party's increasingly conservative rhetoric. This tension with the GOP establishment would persist throughout Nelson's political career and limit his national ambitions.
Personal Tragedies and Scandals
The early 1960s brought a series of personal setbacks and tragedies for Nelson Rockefeller. In 1960, he lost several close friends and advisors, as well as his father John D. Rockefeller Jr. Then in 1961, Nelson decided to end his long-troubled marriage to Tod Rockefeller. The divorce announcement sparked controversy, as no divorced candidate had ever been elected president.
Nelson's decision to leave his wife of 31 years for his younger executive assistant, Margaretta "Happy" Murphy, was seen as political suicide by many observers. But Nelson prioritized his personal happiness over political calculations. The backlash was swift, with Nelson facing criticism from political allies and the public.
Just days after the divorce was announced, Nelson and Tod's 23-year-old son Michael disappeared while on an anthropological expedition in New Guinea. Despite extensive search efforts, Michael's body was never found. This devastating loss compounded the turmoil in Nelson's personal life.
The Challenge of Political Extremism
As Nelson pursued the presidency again in the 1960s, he faced growing extremism within the Republican Party. While Nelson remained a strong proponent of civil rights, hosting Martin Luther King Jr. for dinner at his home, many Republicans were courting Southern white voters and aligning with far-right groups.
The 1964 Republican National Convention starkly illustrated the party's rightward shift. When Nelson took the stage to speak, he was booed and heckled by delegates supporting the more conservative Barry Goldwater. Nelson used the opportunity to deliver a forceful speech denouncing political extremism, but it was clear he was increasingly out of step with his party's base.
Accomplishments as New York Governor
Despite facing opposition within the Republican Party nationally, Nelson Rockefeller achieved many notable policy successes as governor of New York from 1959 to 1973. Some of his key accomplishments included:
Dramatically expanding and improving the State University of New York (SUNY) system, making it the largest public university system in the world by 1973.
Creating the City University of New York (CUNY) system to expand higher education access.
Launching the Pure Waters Initiative to improve water quality throughout the state.
Implementing a $2.5 billion transportation improvement plan and creating the Metropolitan Transportation Authority (MTA) to oversee New York City's transit system.
Mandating that all state buildings be accessible for people with disabilities, three decades before similar federal requirements.
Raising the minimum wage and establishing the Urban Development Corporation to drive housing and infrastructure projects.
Nelson's ambitious agenda and willingness to use state power to drive social progress earned him a reputation as an effective governor, even as it sometimes put him at odds with more conservative Republicans.
Clashes with NYC Mayor John Lindsay
One of Nelson's most difficult political relationships as governor was with New York City Mayor John Lindsay. The two clashed frequently over budget issues and policy priorities. Their conflicts came to a head during the 1968 New York City sanitation workers' strike.
As garbage piled up on city streets, Lindsay refused to meet with Rockefeller or accept state intervention. Nelson eventually negotiated a compromise to end the strike, but Lindsay publicly criticized the governor's involvement. The incident highlighted the often tense dynamic between state and city leadership in New York politics.
Working with President Nixon
Despite their rivalry for the 1968 Republican presidential nomination, Nelson Rockefeller found ways to work productively with President Richard Nixon after he took office. Nixon brought several members of Rockefeller's staff into his administration, including Henry Kissinger as National Security Advisor.
Nelson assisted Nixon on Latin American policy issues and provided reports on domestic policy matters. However, their cooperation was limited by lingering mistrust and ideological differences. Nelson remained a voice for moderation within the Republican Party, often putting him at odds with Nixon's more conservative approach.
Controversial Final Term as Governor
Nelson Rockefeller's fourth and final term as New York governor from 1971 to 1973 was marked by several controversial decisions that damaged his political standing. As economic conditions worsened, Nelson shifted to more conservative policies in some areas.
His most notorious action was enacting harsh new drug laws with mandatory minimum sentences for drug offenses. The "Rockefeller drug laws" led to a massive increase in the state's prison population and were widely criticized for their disproportionate impact on minority communities. Future governors would eventually roll back many of these punitive measures.
Nelson also faced criticism for his handling of the 1971 Attica prison uprising. His decision not to personally negotiate with the prisoners and his approval of a forceful retaking of the prison that left 39 people dead tarnished his reputation as a problem-solver.
Frustrated Tenure as Vice President
In 1974, President Gerald Ford selected Nelson Rockefeller as his vice president following Nixon's resignation due to the Watergate scandal. However, Nelson quickly found the role frustrating and ill-suited to his temperament and skills.
Despite Ford's initial assurances that Nelson would play a major policy role, he was largely sidelined by the president's staff, particularly Chief of Staff Donald Rumsfeld. Nelson clashed with more conservative administration officials and Republican leaders in Congress.
When Nelson did take on substantive assignments, like chairing a commission investigating CIA abuses, his work often put him at odds with party orthodoxy. By 1976, Ford dropped Nelson from the ticket as he sought the Republican nomination, ending Rockefeller's time in national office.
Final Years and Unusual Death
After leaving office in 1977, Nelson Rockefeller returned to private life and focused on organizing the Rockefeller Brothers Fund charitable foundation with his siblings. He also began work on a series of art books.
On January 26, 1980, Nelson died suddenly at the age of 70. The circumstances of his death became the subject of controversy and speculation. Initially, it was reported that he had suffered a heart attack while working late at his office. However, it later emerged that he had actually died at a different location while in the company of his 25-year-old female assistant, Megan Marshack.
The full details remain murky, but it appears Nelson had a heart attack during an intimate encounter with Marshack at her apartment. There was an apparent delay in calling for medical help as those involved tried to move Nelson back to his office, possibly costing crucial time that might have saved his life.
While the unusual circumstances of his death became fodder for tabloids, Nelson Rockefeller was ultimately memorialized with a stately funeral attended by political leaders including Gerald Ford and Jimmy Carter. His passing marked the end of an era in American politics.
Legacy and Impact
Nelson Rockefeller left behind a complex and consequential legacy. As governor of New York, he dramatically expanded the state's infrastructure, education system, and social services. His moderate "Rockefeller Republicanism" represented a pragmatic, problem-solving approach to governance that has largely faded from the modern Republican Party.
On the national stage, Nelson played an important role in shaping Cold War-era foreign policy, particularly toward Latin America. His philanthropy and business ventures aimed to promote economic development in poorer countries. The Rockefeller drug laws, while ultimately seen as a failure, reflected the punitive turn in American criminal justice policy that persisted for decades.
Nelson's inability to secure the Republican presidential nomination, despite his popularity and accomplishments, highlighted the party's shift toward a more conservative ideology. His clashes with GOP leaders presaged the decline of the party's moderate wing.
In many ways, Nelson Rockefeller embodied both the idealism and contradictions of mid-20th century American liberalism. He leveraged his family's vast wealth and influence in pursuit of ambitious policy goals, yet also faced accusations of being out of touch with ordinary citizens. His confidence in government's ability to solve social problems ran counter to the growing conservative movement of the 1960s and 70s.
While Nelson never achieved his ultimate goal of becoming president, he left an indelible mark on New York and national politics. The institutions he built and strengthened - from SUNY to the MTA to MOMA - continue to shape life in New York. His vision of a moderate, pragmatic Republicanism focused on solving problems rather than ideological purity offers an interesting counterpoint to today's polarized political climate.
Nelson Rockefeller's life story is in many ways the story of America in the mid-20th century - marked by immense wealth, grand ambitions, global influence, and social upheaval. His successes and failures continue to resonate in American politics and society today.
Key Themes and Takeaways
Several important themes emerge from Nelson Rockefeller's life and career:
The tension between wealth/privilege and public service - Nelson leveraged his family's resources and connections to pursue an ambitious political agenda, yet also faced skepticism about whether he could relate to ordinary citizens.
Pragmatism vs. ideology - Nelson's moderate, problem-solving approach often put him at odds with more ideological elements in the Republican Party. His willingness to use government power to address social issues became increasingly out of step with conservative orthodoxy.
The limits of money in politics - Despite his vast wealth and influence, Nelson was unable to overcome opposition from party leaders to secure the presidential nomination. His experience shows that financial resources alone are not enough to achieve political goals.
The challenges of maintaining a moderate position - As the Republican Party shifted right, Nelson found himself increasingly isolated. His career illustrates the difficulties of occupying the political center as parties become more polarized.
The complex legacy of ambitious reformers - While Nelson achieved many policy successes, some of his initiatives like the Rockefeller drug laws had long-lasting negative consequences. His story shows how even well-intentioned reforms can have unintended effects.
The role of personal charisma in politics - Nelson's natural charm and energy allowed him to connect with voters and build coalitions despite his privileged background. His ability to overcome his learning disability through force of personality was key to his success.
The interplay between business, philanthropy and government - Throughout his career, Nelson moved between the private and public sectors, using lessons and connections from each realm to drive his agenda forward.
The decline of Northeast Republican moderates - Nelson's marginalization within the GOP reflected broader demographic and ideological shifts that reshaped the party in the late 20th century.
Nelson Rockefeller's life offers a window into a pivotal period of American history and the evolution of the country's politics. While he fell short of the presidency, his impact as governor of New York and his embodiment of a now-faded brand of Republicanism secure his place as one of the most significant political figures of his era. His story continues to offer relevant lessons for understanding the interplay of wealth, power, and public service in American democracy.