Introduction
In his book "Open," Johan Norberg takes readers on a journey through human history to explore the driving force behind our species' remarkable progress. From the earliest days of human evolution to the modern era, Norberg argues that openness – in the form of cooperation, trade, and the free exchange of ideas – has been the key to our success and advancement.
Norberg challenges the notion that progress is inevitable or that certain cultures or regions are destined for greatness. Instead, he presents a compelling case that human flourishing is directly tied to our willingness to embrace openness and resist the temptation to close ourselves off from others.
Through a series of fascinating historical examples and insights from various fields, Norberg demonstrates how openness has repeatedly led to innovation, prosperity, and cultural advancement. He also explores the human tendencies that sometimes push us away from openness and toward isolation and authoritarianism, especially in times of crisis.
As we face global challenges in the 21st century, Norberg's book serves as both a celebration of human achievement and a call to action. By understanding the crucial role of openness in our past, we can better appreciate its importance for our future and work to create a more open, cooperative world.
The Origins of Human Cooperation
Norberg begins by taking us back to the earliest days of human evolution, exploring how cooperation set us apart from other species and put us on the path to becoming the dominant force on the planet.
The Social Leap
Around 3.2 million years ago, our ancestors, including the species Australopithecus afarensis, faced a dramatic environmental shift as rainforests gave way to savannahs. This change forced our early ancestors to adapt to life on dry ground, leading to significant physical changes. Most notably, they developed the ability to throw stones with accuracy and force.
This development, which psychologist William von Hippel calls our "social leap," marked a crucial turning point in human evolution. The ability to throw stones effectively allowed our ancestors to take down larger, stronger animals through coordinated group efforts. This newfound skill not only improved their chances of survival but also laid the foundation for more complex forms of cooperation.
The Power of Collective Knowledge
As humans continued to evolve, our capacity for cooperation and knowledge-sharing grew. Around 45,000 years ago, a population build-up in western Eurasia led to a merging of ideas and the development of advanced tool-making techniques. This knowledge then spread to Africa and the Middle East, where it was further refined and improved.
This pattern of idea-sharing and collaborative innovation would become a hallmark of human progress. It allowed our species to adapt to new environments, overcome challenges, and continuously improve our technologies and ways of life.
The Fate of the Neanderthals
The story of the Neanderthals provides a stark contrast to the success of Homo sapiens and illustrates the importance of openness and cooperation. Despite having larger brains, Neanderthals died out (or, more accurately, their distinct way of life disappeared as they interbred with Homo sapiens) around 50,000 years ago.
Norberg argues that one of the key factors in the Neanderthals' decline was their tendency to stay close to home in their chilly Northern European climate. In contrast, Homo sapiens traveled and traded widely, embracing the benefits of the division of labor. This allowed early human societies to form, with individuals specializing in different tasks based on their skills and preferences.
The more open and adaptable Homo sapiens flourished, while the Neanderthals, despite their physical and cognitive capabilities, failed to thrive in the face of changing conditions and competition from their more cooperative cousins.
The Rise of Cities and Early Globalization
As human societies grew more complex, the development of cities marked a new era of innovation and prosperity. Contrary to popular belief, Norberg argues that cities were not primarily built for security, but rather as a result of increased cooperation and wealth generation.
The Productivity of Urban Centers
Recent studies have shown that larger cities tend to be more productive and innovative. This pattern can be traced back to the early Mesopotamian cities, which became hubs of advancement in fields such as chemistry, medicine, mathematics, zoology, and mapmaking.
The key to this urban productivity was the division of labor and efficient farming techniques. These developments allowed some individuals to specialize in their chosen fields, dedicating time to pursing knowledge and developing new ideas. The entire city could then benefit from these advancements, creating a virtuous cycle of innovation and progress.
The Phoenicians: The First Globalists
One of the most significant early examples of the power of openness and trade comes from the Phoenicians. These Eastern Mediterranean people developed advanced shipbuilding and navigation techniques, allowing them to establish a vast trading network that stretched from the Mediterranean to the Persian Gulf.
The Phoenicians' contributions went beyond mere commerce. They established city-states throughout their trading routes and developed a 22-letter phonetic alphabet that became the universal language of trade. This alphabet later evolved into the foundation for the modern Latin alphabet used in English and many other languages today.
The Phoenician civilization demonstrates how openness to trade and ideas can lead to remarkable advancements. Their society saw the development of new technologies like glassblowing, innovative architectural styles, and even the emergence of large-scale sporting events. Although the Phoenicians were eventually conquered by the Babylonians and Romans after nearly 2,000 years of prosperity, their innovations and ideas lived on through subsequent civilizations.
The Roman Empire: Openness and Tolerance
The Roman Empire, at its height, provides another example of how openness and tolerance can contribute to the success of a civilization. The empire grew through its acceptance of diverse religions and beliefs, allowing individuals from various backgrounds to rise through the ranks of Roman society.
This period of openness and free trade allowed the Roman Empire to thrive and expand. However, Norberg notes that the empire's eventual shift towards intolerance and religious persecution in the third century marked the beginning of its decline. This serves as a cautionary tale about the dangers of abandoning the principles of openness that contribute to a society's success.
The Global Spread of Enlightenment
Norberg challenges the Eurocentric view of history that sees the continent as uniquely destined to be the birthplace of modern civilization and the Age of Enlightenment. Instead, he argues that many regions around the world experienced periods of openness and enlightenment that rivaled or even surpassed Europe's achievements.
The Islamic Golden Age
One of the most significant examples of this global enlightenment occurred in the Islamic world from the 8th to the 12th centuries. Known as the Islamic Golden Age, this period saw remarkable advancements in science, philosophy, and culture across the Abbasid Caliphate, which stretched from Spain to India.
During this time, Europe was mired in the Dark Ages, with much of its previous scientific knowledge being lost or rejected. The Islamic world, however, remained open to and tolerant of other cultures, preserving and building upon the knowledge of the ancient world.
Islamic scholars translated works from Greek, Persian, and Indian sources into Arabic, creating a vast repository of knowledge. New centers of learning were established, such as the Al-Karaouine University in Morocco, which remains the world's oldest continually operating university.
This period of openness and intellectual exchange led to significant advancements in fields such as astronomy, medicine, physics, and mathematics. The development of algebra, for instance, can be traced back to this era of Islamic innovation.
China's Song Dynasty
Another example of enlightenment outside of Europe occurred in China during the Song dynasty, which lasted from the 10th to the 13th centuries. Historian Stephen Davies argues that during this period, China's economy, government, social structure, and scientific knowledge were as advanced as those of 18th-century Europe.
The Song dynasty's success was rooted in its openness to trade and willingness to learn from other cultures. This approach fostered innovation and economic growth, positioning China as a global leader in many areas of human endeavor.
The Cycle of Openness and Closure
Norberg identifies a recurring pattern throughout history: societies experience periods of openness and prosperity, followed by events that trigger fear and isolation. This cycle often begins with a time of open borders, free trade, and cultural exchange, leading to innovation and economic growth.
However, when faced with challenges such as invasions or natural disasters, societies often react by closing themselves off and blaming their misfortunes on their previous openness. This leads to a period of stagnation and decline until enough people recognize the benefits of returning to a more open approach.
This cycle played out in both the Islamic world and China. The Mongol invasion of Baghdad in 1258 marked the end of the Islamic Golden Age, leading to a rise in religious fundamentalism and a rejection of scientific inquiry. Similarly, repeated Mongol invasions in the 13th century prompted China to close its doors to the outside world, stifling the innovation that had flourished during the Song dynasty.
Europe's Path to Openness
While other parts of the world experienced periods of enlightenment and subsequent closure, Europe gradually moved towards greater openness, setting the stage for the Age of Enlightenment and the Industrial Revolution.
Rediscovery of Ancient Knowledge
A crucial turning point came in 1085 when Christian Europeans conquered parts of northern Spain. In the city of Toledo, they discovered a Muslim library containing translated works of ancient Greek and Roman scholars, including the surviving writings of Aristotle.
This rediscovery of classical knowledge sparked a renewed interest in learning among European intellectuals. The conquered regions of Spain became centers of scholarship, attracting curious minds from across the continent. Over the next two centuries, this influx of knowledge contributed to a gradual opening up of European society.
The Age of Exploration
By 1500, Europe's growing openness began to extend beyond its borders. The discovery of the New World coincided with the establishment of new trade routes to the Far East, ushering in an era of unprecedented wealth generation and cultural exchange.
Initially, Spain and Portugal led the way in maritime exploration and trade. However, it was the Dutch who would emerge as the true masters of this new global economy.
The Dutch Golden Age
The Dutch Republic's rise to prominence in the 17th century exemplifies the power of openness and tolerance. Unlike Spain and Portugal, the Dutch combined their naval prowess with a society that was open to free trade and the exchange of ideas from diverse sources.
The Dutch Republic welcomed oppressed immigrants from across Europe, including Sephardic Jews from Spain, Huguenots from France, Protestants from the Habsburg Empire, and English Quakers. This influx of diverse talent not only provided a significant portion of the Dutch workforce but also created a unique melting pot of ideas that fueled innovation and economic growth.
The combination of openness, tolerance, and economic innovation allowed the Dutch to surpass the economies of Spain and Portugal by 1600. Their success set a template for a modern economy and tolerant society that would later be embraced by England following the Glorious Revolution of 1688.
The Birth of the Modern Global Economy
The union of England and Scotland in 1707 created Great Britain, setting the stage for the Industrial Revolution. Soon after, the United States of America was born, founded on principles of openness to immigrants and religious freedom.
The Non-Zero-Sum Nature of Trade
One of the key insights Norberg emphasizes is that the global economy is not a zero-sum game. He uses the example of the Dutch Republic to illustrate this point. Despite producing very little in terms of raw materials, the Dutch prospered through free trade, as did the nations with which they traded.
This seeming paradox is explained by the ongoing nature of value creation in a free trade system. When something is traded, it can be traded again, potentially creating unforeseen value further down the line. The benefit a nation receives from participating in free trade cannot be determined simply by looking at the face value of individual trade agreements.
The Fruits of Openness
The results of this open, global economy have been remarkable. Over the past 200 years, average incomes in nations with advanced economies have risen from $3 to $100 per day, adjusted for inflation. Life expectancy worldwide has increased from under 30 years to over 70 years since the early 1800s. During the same period, the proportion of the world's population living in poverty has dropped from 90 percent to around 9 percent.
These improvements extend beyond economic measures. Openness has led to the eradication of many diseases and countless medical and scientific discoveries. The free exchange of ideas and resources has allowed humanity to tackle problems on a global scale, improving quality of life for billions of people.
The Human Struggle with Openness
Despite the clear benefits of openness, Norberg acknowledges that human beings often struggle with the concept. Our instincts and evolutionary history can sometimes push us towards fear and isolation, especially in times of crisis.
The Psychology of Fear and In-Group Preference
The human brain isn't naturally wired for openness and inclusivity. Studies have shown that when faced with thoughts of mortality, people tend to intensify their fears of outsiders and strengthen their preferences for their own in-group.
This tendency applies not just to obvious distinctions like nationality or ethnicity, but to any group with which an individual identifies. For example, research has found that Christian students, when reminded of their own mortality, rate fellow Christians as more appealing and Jewish individuals as less appealing, even if they were previously considered equally likeable.
The Rise of Nationalism
These psychological tendencies help explain the rise of nationalism following events like the 9/11 terrorist attacks and the 2008 economic crisis. When people begin to lose jobs or sense a threat to their well-being, the instinct to close ranks and reject outsiders can become stronger.
Ironically, it's often through continued commitment to openness that such problems are best solved. Historical examples like China after the Song dynasty or the Islamic world following the Abbasid Caliphate demonstrate how closing doors and striving for self-sufficiency not only damages the economy but also stifles the innovation needed to address major challenges.
The Authoritarian Temptation
Another human impulse that can work against openness is the desire for strong leadership in times of uncertainty. While people have generally become more liberal since World War II, calling for greater individual rights and autonomy from the state, the pull towards authoritarianism remains a constant threat.
The Limits of Authoritarian Innovation
Norberg argues that authoritarian leadership is ill-suited to fostering the kind of innovation and entrepreneurship that drives progress. When the state has oversight of industry, failure is often not an option, which discourages the trial-and-error approach necessary for breakthrough discoveries.
He cites examples from North Korea and the Soviet Union to illustrate how authoritarian control stifles innovation. In North Korea, Kim Jong-il's attempt to create a thriving movie industry through threats failed miserably. The Soviet Union's inability to develop computer technology stemmed from its unwillingness to allow entrepreneurs to experiment freely.
The Importance of Entrepreneurial Freedom
In contrast, the development of home computers and the internet in the United States demonstrates the power of allowing entrepreneurs to take risks and learn from failures. Despite initial skepticism even from the US government about the market for home computers, persistent experimentation and investment eventually led to a technological revolution.
This example also highlights how the world economy is not a zero-sum game. While some jobs have been lost due to the advent of the internet, many more have been created. A McKinsey report found that a third of the jobs created in the US over the past 25 years were entirely new, while a French survey discovered that 2.4 new jobs had been created for every job lost to the internet since 1996.
China: A Case Study in Partial Openness
China's recent economic success provides an interesting case study in the benefits and limitations of partial openness. Despite the Communist Party's narrative of planned success, China's economic boom was largely driven by bottom-up initiatives.
The Accidental Capitalists
In the 1990s, Chinese farmers began operating as private businesses of their own accord. This trend spread rapidly, forcing the government to eventually sanction it. The creation of "economic free zones" and the quiet consultation of foreign advisors allowed China to cautiously embrace elements of capitalism, resulting in significant economic growth.
The Limits of Controlled Capitalism
However, Norberg argues that China's economic success may be unsustainable under its current system. Since 2008, he contends that China's economy has actually been in steady decline. The fundamental issue is that an authoritarian government is averse to surprises and unpredictability, which are essential elements of true innovation and entrepreneurship.
Unless China is willing to loosen its control and allow for greater openness and free exchange of ideas, it may struggle to maintain its economic momentum and foster the kind of innovation needed to address future challenges.
Addressing Global Challenges Through Openness
As we face significant global challenges in the 21st century, Norberg argues that the solution lies in embracing openness rather than retreating into isolation or authoritarianism.
Climate Change as a Knowledge Problem
Norberg frames the current climate crisis as a knowledge problem. We understand the need to reduce harmful emissions and stop rising global temperatures, but figuring out how to achieve these goals requires cooperation and the open sharing of ideas and knowledge.
He suggests that creating the right incentives, such as implementing a carbon tax, could spur innovation and bring together the best minds to solve the problem. By making people pay for the environmental damage they cause, such a policy could create pressure for finding solutions while potentially generating funds that could be passed on to consumers.
The Illusion of a Better Past
While many people are tempted to imagine that things were better or simpler in the past, Norberg argues that this is an illusion. By almost every measure, people around the world are significantly better off today than they were in the 1950s or at the dawn of the 20th century.
He cautions against the temptation to retreat into authoritarianism or isolationism in the face of current challenges. Instead, he advocates for continued openness, looking to other cultures for ideas and inspiration, and using our collective knowledge and resources to solve global problems.
Conclusion: The Ongoing Importance of Openness
In "Open," Johan Norberg presents a compelling argument for the crucial role of openness in human progress. From our earliest ancestors' cooperative hunting techniques to the global exchange of ideas that drives modern innovation, openness has been the key to our species' success.
Norberg's historical examples demonstrate how societies that embrace openness – through trade, cultural exchange, and the free flow of ideas – tend to flourish, while those that close themselves off stagnate and decline. This pattern has repeated itself throughout history, from the Phoenicians and the Islamic Golden Age to the Dutch Republic and the modern global economy.
However, Norberg also acknowledges the human tendencies that can push us away from openness. Fear, uncertainty, and our innate preference for in-group members can lead societies to close themselves off, especially in times of crisis. The pull towards authoritarianism in the face of challenges is another constant threat to openness.
Despite these challenges, Norberg argues that the problems facing the world today – from climate change to economic inequality – can only be solved through continued commitment to openness. By fostering cooperation, encouraging the free exchange of ideas, and resisting the urge to retreat into isolationism, we can harness the power of human ingenuity to address global challenges.
As we move further into the 21st century, Norberg's book serves as both a celebration of human achievement and a call to action. By understanding the crucial role that openness has played in our past, we can better appreciate its importance for our future. In doing so, we can work towards creating a more open, cooperative world that continues to push the boundaries of human progress.
The lessons of "Open" remind us that our greatest strengths as a species lie not in our ability to compete or dominate, but in our capacity to cooperate, share knowledge, and build on each other's ideas. As we face the complex challenges of our time, embracing openness may be our best hope for creating a better, more prosperous future for all of humanity.