Introduction
The Arab-Israeli conflict is one of the longest-running political disputes of the modern age. While often portrayed as a complex issue, the history of Palestine is actually quite straightforward. For 4,000 years, Palestine has existed as a diverse region between modern-day Lebanon and Egypt, home to multiple ethnic groups, cultures, and religions.
However, this long history was disrupted in the 19th century when European colonists known as Zionists began attempting to create a Jewish state in Palestine. What followed was the systematic displacement of the indigenous Palestinian people and their replacement with European settlers. This forms the root of the ongoing conflict we see today.
In this book, author Nur Masalha aims to present an evidence-based account of Palestine's rich history, free from political bias. By understanding the true history of this land and its people, we can work towards addressing past injustices and building a more peaceful future.
The Ancient Roots of Palestine
Archaeological Evidence of Indigenous Philistines
Recent archaeological discoveries have shed new light on the ancient history of Palestine. In 2017, a 3,000-year-old Philistine graveyard was unearthed near modern-day Ashkelon in western Israel. This find was remarkable because it helped disprove the theory that Philistines were invaders from the Aegean Sea.
Five inscriptions found at the site clearly read "Peleset," an early written form of "Palestine." This led archaeologists to conclude that the Philistines were actually indigenous to the land, not foreign invaders as previously thought.
This archaeological evidence is supported by ancient Egyptian texts from around the same time period. These texts describe the Philistines as one of the neighboring peoples against whom the Egyptians fought, further confirming their presence in the region.
The Biblical Cana'an Narrative
The discovery of indigenous Philistines conflicts with the Biblical Cana'anite narrative that has been used since the 19th century by Zionists to claim the region. While Cana'an did exist as a place, historical evidence shows that it was actually a Biblical term referring to Phoenicia, a civilization in modern-day Lebanon. The name "Cana'an" was only used briefly to describe this region around 1300 BC.
Meanwhile, Philistia refers to the region directly south of Phoenicia. After the 8th and 7th centuries BC, the entire southern Levantine region - corresponding to modern Israel, Palestine, and even southern Lebanon - became known as Philistia rather than Cana'an or other ancient names.
The Flourishing of Philistine Civilization
As the Iron Age began in the 6th and 5th centuries BC, the Philistines developed a sophisticated urban civilization. They were known for their advanced shipbuilding techniques and left behind a legacy of artistic craftsmanship in pottery, metalwork, and ivory carvings.
During this time, many ancient Palestinian cities were founded, such as Ghazzah, 'Asgalan, and Isdud. These exist today as Gaza, Ashkelon, and Ashdod, though Israel expelled the Palestinian inhabitants of the latter two in 1948.
Archaeological evidence suggests that the city-states of ancient Palestine were similar to the advanced city-states of ancient Greek civilization. The Philistine city-states established extensive trade networks with Egypt, Phoenicia, and Arabia. This trade not only supported the economy of ancient Palestine but also fostered a multicultural and polytheistic society.
Palestine Under Greek and Roman Rule
The Emergence of the Name "Palestine"
By the 5th century BC, the term "Palestine" (Palestina in Greek, Palestine in Latin) began to appear as the dominant name for the region between modern-day Lebanon and Egypt. This name would continue to be used for the next 1,200 years, until the Islamic conquest in 637 AD.
Greek philosophers and historians like Aristotle and Herodotus wrote about Palestine, describing it as a polytheistic, trade-rich region. The Arabs inhabiting Palestine's southern port cities controlled the lucrative frankincense trade route stretching to India, bringing wealth, status, and exotic goods to the region.
Roman Palestine
During Roman rule, from 135 to 390 AD, the region was officially known as Syria Palaestina. Written records from this period reveal the multicultural nature of Palestine. Christianity was practiced by Arabic, Greek, and Aramaic speakers, while Judaism was practiced by Greek and Aramaic speakers. The region was also home to Greek and Latin-speaking polytheists who worshipped various gods.
As Roman rule progressed, the region's name gradually shifted from Syria Palaestina to simply Palestine. This is evident in the literature of the time, particularly in the works of Greco-Jewish philosopher Philo and Roman geographer Pomponius Mela.
Pomponius provides detailed descriptions of Palestine's geography in his writings. In 43 AD, he mentions Judea as a small Roman province in central Palestine. Like Herodotus 500 years before him, he describes Palestine as the region stretching from Lebanon to Egypt, mentioning the Arabs of Palestine and the "mighty city" of Gaza.
The Renaming of Jerusalem
During the Roman period, the name "Jerusalem" was almost entirely forgotten. Following the practice of their Hellenistic predecessors, the Romans renamed the city "Aelia Capitolina." "Aelia" was Emperor Hadrian's second name, and "Capitolina" referenced the chief god in the Roman pantheon.
Records show that Palestinian Arabs adopted the Arabized name "Iliya" for the city well before the Islamic conquest. Even into the 10th century, this term was still used alongside a new Arabic name for the city – "Bayt al-Maqdis," meaning "the Holy City."
Byzantine Palestine: The Growth of Christianity and Arab Power
The Rise of Christianity
When Christianity became the Roman state religion in the 4th century, Palestine gained new importance as the birthplace of Jesus and the spiritual center of Christianity. The Byzantine Roman empire divided Palestine into three administrative regions: Palestina Prima (central), Palestina Secunda (northern), and Palestina Salutaris (southern). These three regions made up Greater Palestine, which became famous worldwide for its bustling cities, breathtaking architecture, great libraries, philosophical centers, and large population.
A Thriving, Multicultural Society
During the Byzantine period, Palestine's population may have reached up to 1.5 million inhabitants. The most important city, Caesarea Maritima, was home to about 100,000 people and served as the capital of Palaestina Prima. This cosmopolitan city hosted a dynamic mix of ethnicities, languages, and religions – Greek, Arabic, and Aramaic-speaking Christians, Jews, Samaritans, and even polytheistic Arabs.
Caesarea was a center of early Christian philosophy, home to important figures like Origen in the 3rd century. The Library of Caesarea, founded by Origen, became one of the most significant libraries of Classical Antiquity, second only to the Library of Alexandria in Egypt.
Education and Cultural Development
The atmosphere of philosophy and learning permeated wider Palestinian society. Basic education was widely available, even in villages, covering subjects such as Greek, Latin, rhetoric, law, and philosophy. The goal was to provide capable administrators and leaders for state and church structures.
The Growth of the Arab Population
The Byzantine period also saw an increase in Palestine's Arab population. Archaeological evidence shows that Arabs had been living in Palestine for at least 500 years before Jesus was born. In the early 3rd century, the Arab population grew further with the arrival of Christian Arabs migrating from Yemen. Descendants of these Arabs would go on to rule over parts of Palestine centuries before the arrival of Islam in the 7th century.
The Muslim Conquest and the Golden Age of Islam
The Arrival of Islam
The Muslim conquest of Palestine in 637 AD brought significant changes to the region. It cemented the use of the Arabic language, which would be spoken by the majority of people in the region for the next 1,300 years.
During this time, Palestine acquired its modern Arabic name, Filastin, derived from the ancient Philistia. Filastin became a core province of the new Muslim empire, or "Caliphate," along with neighboring Damascus (Dimashq).
A Smooth Transition
The Islamization of mostly-Christian Palestine took place alongside the spread of Arabic. This transition was relatively smooth for several reasons:
- Arabization had been happening for centuries already, with the growth of Palestine's Christian Arab population.
- Arabic is closely related to Aramaic, the most common language at the time.
- Islam, as a monotheistic continuation of Christianity and Judaism, was not a drastic change for many locals.
The new Muslim rulers of Palestine practiced religious and cultural tolerance towards the region's Christians and Jews, further easing the transition.
Jerusalem's Importance
Under Muslim rule, Palestine experienced intense urbanization, particularly in Jerusalem. For Muslims, the city was the third holiest place after Mecca and Medina. This resulted in the construction of many grand religious monuments, such as the Dome of the Rock in 691 AD.
Jerusalem was so important that Muslim rulers even considered making it the capital of their empire instead of Damascus.
Economic Prosperity
Contrary to some Zionist narratives that portray early Muslim Palestine as a region in decline, historical records show that Palestine's economy thrived like never before. According to Caliphate tax records, Palestine was the richest region in the Levant under the early Caliphate.
Palestinian exports such as olive oil, wine, and soap were found throughout the Mediterranean region. Glassware made by Arab Jews even reached European markets. The Muslim conquest and the subsequent "Golden Age" of Islam helped Palestine become a technologically and culturally advanced region.
This advanced state of Palestinian society was noted by European crusaders who invaded in 1099. They were surprised to encounter a society far more developed than those in Europe from where they had departed.
The Ayyubid and Mamluk Dynasties: Restoring Muslim Rule
Salah al-Din and the Defeat of the Crusaders
European Crusaders had ravaged Palestine from 1147 onwards, seeking to establish European, Christian supremacy over the Holy Land. However, the legendary military commander Salah al-Din (Saladin) reversed Crusader victories at the Battle of Hittin in 1187, re-establishing Muslim rule in Palestine. This rule would continue for the next seven centuries.
While Salah al-Din was unable to retake the well-fortified coastal city of Acre from French crusaders, his descendants succeeded in freeing it from crusader rule in 1291. With the restoration of Muslim rule, Jews and Muslims were once again able to worship freely without persecution, and desecrated religious sites were restored.
Administrative Changes Under the Ayyubids
Once in power, the Ayyubid dynasty brought about significant administrative changes in Palestine. Most notably, they appointed Jerusalem as Palestine's capital city, a status it would maintain for the next 700 years.
To prevent future Crusader sieges, the Ayyubids made the radical decision to tear down the walls of major cities. This strategy proved successful, as it blocked future sieges and allowed cities like Jerusalem to grow beyond their former boundaries.
The Mamluk Era: A Time of Peace and Development
The Mamluk dynasty came to power in Palestine after defeating Mongolian invaders in 1260. The peaceful political environment that followed led to Jerusalem becoming a major pilgrimage destination.
To support this, the Mamluks constructed sprawling bathhouses and established clean running water systems, critical elements for pilgrimage cities at the time. One of these bathhouses, the Hammam al-Ayn, still exists today.
Jerusalem and other inland Palestinian cities experienced a renaissance of construction during the Mamluk period. The city's famous white stone architecture flourished, much of which can still be seen in modern times.
Ottoman Rule and the First Palestinian State
Palestine Under Ottoman Control
When the Ottoman dynasty took control of Palestine in 1517, the region continued to be known as the Muslim-majority, Arabic-speaking land between Egypt and Lebanon. European cartographers up to the 20th century consistently used the name Palestine to describe the area, and it even appears in the works of Shakespeare.
The Rise of Palestinian Statehood
Contrary to conventional history, which represents Palestinian nationalism as a European export in the 19th century, the first Palestinian state actually emerged a century earlier. It wasn't the result of elite rule under the guise of nationalism, but rather a people's uprising against oppressive forces.
In the 18th century, as the Ottoman Empire was declining, the Palestinians of the Galilee region rebelled against its oppressive rule. Led by Dhaher al-Umar al-Zaydani, now considered a father of modern Palestine, an army of Christian and Muslim peasants defeated the Ottoman forces throughout the 1720s and 1730s.
By 1768, al-Umar had established an autonomous state within Palestine's borders. While Palestine was still formally an Ottoman frontier region, it had become a de facto sovereign state.
Economic Prosperity and Development
Under al-Umar's leadership and with popular support from the peasantry, Palestine became an economic powerhouse in the late 18th century. The Palestinian cotton industry boomed due to demand from industrializing nations like France and England. These new economic realities resulted in Palestine's reorientation toward international trade with Europe.
Al-Umar's rule allowed Palestine to escape the economic neglect afflicting other regions of the Ottoman Empire. In addition to its new economic prominence, Palestine established a fair taxation system to finance this self-ruled state. Many new urban development projects transformed entire landscapes. For example, Haifa evolved from a small village to a bustling metropolis in just a few decades.
This autonomous Palestinian state lasted from the 1720s until al-Umar's death in 1775, representing the first true example of Palestinian self-rule, predating the British Mandate of Palestine by nearly 150 years.
The Rise of Modern Palestinian Nationalism
Napoleon's Campaign and British Interest
Two decades after al-Umar's death, change was brewing across the Mediterranean in Europe. Napoleon's campaign in Egypt and Palestine in 1799 marked the beginning of British colonial interest in the region. Although Napoleon failed to take the Palestinian coastal city of Acre, his campaign signaled the start of increased European attention on Palestine.
British Involvement and Evangelical Interest
Over the first few decades of the 19th century, British evangelicals flocked to Palestine, and travel companies like Thomas Cook began arranging tours of the region. British interest became official when a delegation arrived in 1871 to create detailed maps of Palestine. With the Ottoman Empire at risk of collapse, the British were preparing to assume the role of colonial power in the area, viewing Palestine as a useful stopover on the way to British India.
The mapping delegation also foreshadowed future developments. The British Palestine Exploration Fund, partly run by biblical scholars with an evangelical interest in the region, was founded. One of its founding members, Charles Warren, was an evangelical Christian Zionist who believed that a Jewish state must be established in Palestine to hasten the Second Coming of Christ.
The Growth of Palestinian Identity
Parallel to growing British interest in Palestine was a burgeoning Palestinian nationalism, which predated the beginnings of Zionism by half a century. At the turn of the century, Palestine was overwhelmingly Muslim and Christian Arab, with a mostly-Arab Jewish minority of about 25,000. Up to the start of European Jewish settlement in the late 19th century, the different religious groups of Palestine lived in peaceful coexistence.
Palestinians of all religious persuasions felt the tide of nationalism, accelerated by an industrial printing revolution and the growth of secular education. Increased literacy resulting from these phenomena heightened Palestinian nationalism. Newspaper publications such as "Falastin" were widely distributed by the early 20th century, becoming important anti-imperialist outlets.
The British Mandate of Palestine
Finally, in the context of World War I, Britain achieved its century-long goal. With the Ottoman Empire near defeat, the British army occupied Palestine. The new League of Nations entrusted Britain with governing the new British Mandate of Palestine, setting the stage for future conflicts.
The Roots of Zionism
European Colonialism and Zionist Ideology
The 19th century saw an intensification of European colonialism around the world, bringing with it the view that European interests always took priority over those of colonized indigenous peoples. The emerging ideology of Zionism was no different from other forms of colonialism in this respect.
Just as British colonialists saw the people of India as uncivilized and unworthy of self-governance, Zionists held similar beliefs about the people of Palestine. However, Zionism had a defining characteristic that set it apart from British colonialism: while British colonialists in India sought to exploit the country for economic benefit, Zionism was a settler-colonial project aimed at replacing the indigenous Palestinian population with non-Palestinian Jews.
The Myth of "A Land Without a People"
19th-century Zionists propagated the well-known myth that Palestine was "a land without a people for a people without a land." Contrary to common misconceptions, this maxim didn't refer to the demographics of Palestine – Zionists were well aware of Palestine's large indigenous population. Rather, according to the European colonial mindset of the time, the people living in Palestine weren't regarded as fully human.
British Christian Zionism and the Balfour Declaration
To assist in their goals, Jewish Zionists found valuable allies in British Christian Zionists. Many prominent British politicians of the time, such as future Prime Minister David Lloyd George, subscribed to this ideology.
The combination of British geopolitical interest in Palestine and Zionist lobbying resulted in the Balfour Declaration of 1917. This declaration made it Britain's official state policy to support the creation of a Jewish state in Palestine.
The Path to Forced Removal
Before the Balfour Declaration, Zionist opinion on the native Palestinians and what to do with them after the establishment of a Jewish state was mostly guided by indifference or racist superiority. After the British Mandate was declared and Palestinian anti-Zionism intensified, Zionist leadership concluded that the only way for a Jewish state to be successful was to forcibly remove the Palestinians from their ancestral homeland.
This plan came to fruition in 1948 with the declaration of the state of Israel. During what became known as the "Nakba," or catastrophe, Zionist militants cleansed cities like Jaffa of their Muslim and Christian Arab inhabitants, replacing them with white European settlers.
The Erasure of Palestinian History
The Systematic Removal of Palestinian Heritage
Starting in 1948, the newly established state of Israel began removing historical traces of Palestine from their newly colonized lands. Now in control of the majority of historical Palestine, Zionists began a systematic process of branding Zionism as the return of indigenous people to their homeland after a 2,000-year absence.
The Government Names Committee
A key part of this process was the work done by the new Government Names Committee. This committee was set up by David Grün, a Polish Zionist and the first Prime Minister of Israel, who had changed his own name to the more biblical-sounding "Ben-Gurion." By the end of Israel's first few years, most top-ranking Israelis had similarly changed their names.
The Invention of Modern Hebrew
Changing surnames wasn't enough – Zionists needed a language to help invent their country. They started by creating Modern Hebrew in the late 19th century. The inventor of Modern Hebrew, Eliezer Ben-Yehuda (previously known as Lazar Perelman), relied heavily on appropriating Palestinian Arabic words, sounds, and grammar for this new language. He also included many words from European languages like Yiddish and Polish.
The Nakba and Its Aftermath
After the Nakba in 1948, Zionists controlled 80 percent of historic Palestine, having ousted most of the original inhabitants. 700,000 Palestinians became refugees, displaced from their ancestral homeland.
Despite these circumstances, Palestinians have shown remarkable perseverance. In the face of being replaced by a settler population and erased from history, Palestinian culture continues to thrive. Over the last few decades, a wealth of novels, films, archives, websites, and other repositories of Palestinian identity have been created and are widely propagated throughout Palestinian civil society.
The Resilience of Palestinian Identity
Preserving Cultural Heritage
Much of modern Palestinian cultural identity is based on nationalist sentiment from the 19th and 20th centuries. However, there is hope that this focus will expand to encompass the long and diverse tapestry of Palestinian history. After all, modern Palestinian Arabs are descendants of a melting pot of peoples – Arabs, Greeks, Canaanites, Philistines, and many more.
The Importance of Historical Understanding
By recognizing and embracing this rich historical legacy, Palestinians can strengthen their claim to the land and challenge the narrative that seeks to erase their presence. Understanding the continuous inhabitation of Palestine by diverse peoples over millennia provides a powerful counterpoint to the idea that the land was empty or unclaimed before the arrival of European Jewish settlers.
Challenges and Opportunities
The ongoing conflict and occupation present significant challenges to preserving and promoting Palestinian history and culture. However, these challenges have also spurred a renewed interest in Palestinian heritage among younger generations. Digital platforms and social media have become powerful tools for sharing stories, preserving memories, and connecting Palestinians across the globe.
The Role of Education
Palestinian educational institutions have an important role to play in expanding the historical narrative taught to young Palestinians. By incorporating a more comprehensive view of Palestinian history – one that extends beyond the modern nationalist period – these institutions can help foster a deeper sense of identity and connection to the land.
International Recognition
As more people around the world become aware of the long and complex history of Palestine, there is potential for increased international support for Palestinian rights and self-determination. Archaeological discoveries, historical research, and cultural preservation efforts all contribute to a more nuanced understanding of the region's past and present.
Conclusion
The name "Palestine" has been the most common way to describe the region on the Mediterranean Sea between Egypt and Lebanon for 3,200 years. Over its long history, Palestine has been a melting pot of different religions, languages, and ethnicities. The Palestinian Arabs of today have a mixed ancestry of Greek, Philistine, Israelite, Arab, Roman, and other ethnicities that have populated the region over the years.
While Islam has been the major religion for the last 1,400 years, Christianity and Judaism were also practiced continuously by the native population for millennia. This long-standing diversity and coexistence were interrupted by the Zionist movement – a European colonial project that sought to claim Palestine as its own territory.
The establishment of the state of Israel in 1948 led to the depopulation of Palestinian cities and the appropriation of Palestinian culture and language. However, despite these challenges, Palestinian identity and culture have proven resilient.
As we look to the future, it's crucial to recognize and understand the full breadth of Palestinian history. By acknowledging the region's rich and diverse past, we can work towards a more just and peaceful resolution to the ongoing conflict. Only by confronting historical truths and addressing past injustices can we hope to build a future where all inhabitants of the land – regardless of their ethnic or religious background – can live in peace and dignity.