Revolutionary Iran Summary

“How did an ancient land like Iran transform into the multifaceted Islamic Republic we see today? The answer lies buried in its turbulent past and the eternal struggle between tradition and modernity.”

1. Early Twentieth-Century Turmoil Sowed the Seeds of Revolution

Iran’s journey toward revolution began in the early 1900s with a surge in public discontent fueled by economic instability and autocratic governance. Public protests against the monarchy gained momentum in 1905, leading to the establishment of a national assembly, or Majles, in 1906. This marked Iran’s first real attempt at constitutionalism, bridging democracy and religious authority.

The Majles introduced a groundbreaking constitution, proclaiming Shi’a Islam as the state religion while also granting power to the people. However, this newfound hope soon faltered. The ulema (clergy) grew wary of the reforms, fearing an erosion of their authority. By 1908, the monarchy, under Mohammad Ali Shah, staged a coup to regain absolute control. Despite brief revolutionary victories, conservatives struck back in 1911, dismantling the Majles and halting momentum toward democracy.

Political polarization and revolutionary unrest persisted. Even though the constitutional revolution was short-lived, it planted the desire for change, equality, and representation, which manifested in the revolutions to come.

Examples

• Police violence during protests in 1906 turned public opinion against the Shah.
• The 1906 constitution balanced modern governance with religious oversight through the ulema.
• The monarchy's 1911 coup marked a temporary end to constitutional reforms but set a precedent for later uprisings.

2. The Pahlavi Dynasty’s Nationalist and Secular Reforms

In 1921, Reza Khan staged a military coup, seizing control of Iran with British approval. By 1925, he crowned himself Shah, founding the Pahlavi dynasty and embarking on a campaign of modernization. His reforms aimed to secularize Iranian society and strengthen national identity.

Reza Shah’s initiatives included building a modern army, outlawing traditional dress like the veil, overhauling the education system, and launching economic projects to modernize infrastructure. While these actions propelled Iran toward modernization, they alienated traditional and religious communities who resented the rapid rejection of cultural norms. The Shah’s rule was, however, marked by an iron fist, as dissent was crushed.

By the time Reza Shah abdicated in 1941, his legacy of secular reforms and autocratic rule had laid the foundation for a deep cultural chasm between reformers and conservatives—a division that would spark future tension.

Examples

• Reza Shah opened Iran’s first modern university in 1934 and sent students abroad for higher education.
• Traditional Islamic dress was banned in favor of Western attire, meeting resistance from religious communities.
• The state directed 40% of its budget toward creating and maintaining a modern military force.

3. Rising Discontent in the 1970s

By the 1970s, inequality, corruption, and political repression had eroded public trust in the Pahlavi monarchy. While Iran saw industrial and economic expansion fueled by oil wealth, the benefits rarely trickled down to the broader population.

Activist groups like the National Front emerged from hiding, calling for constitutional reforms and democratic representation. Public opposition reached a fever pitch in 1977 with ten days of poetry readings in Tehran, during which intellectuals openly criticized the regime. The nation's simmering unrest boiled over, with protests becoming larger and more charged.

When soldiers opened fire on demonstrators in September 1978, killing dozens, public anger escalated. This pivotal moment illustrated how the Shah’s policies, intended to suppress dissent, inadvertently fueled the flames of rebellion.

Examples

• The Shah attempted liberal reforms by releasing some political prisoners, which emboldened activists.
• Poetry readings turned into massive rallies, drawing thousands of attendees.
• The September 1978 massacre, where soldiers shot into a protest crowd, left public trust in the monarchy irreparably shattered.

4. The 1979 Revolution Toppled the Monarchy

The dramatic buildup of protests in 1978 culminated in the 1979 revolution, which ended the Pahlavi dynasty. Exiled Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini returned, promising to rid Iran of autocratic rule and establish a government inspired by Islamic law. Crowds welcomed him, viewing him as a figurehead for change.

In February 1979, with mass protests paralyzing the country, the Shah fled and the army declared neutrality. Khomeini wasted no time consolidating power, holding a referendum for the establishment of the Islamic Republic. His calls for an Islamic government resonated widely, though many Iranians didn’t fully grasp the specifics of his vision.

Radical as it was, the revolution was seen primarily as a popular victory against inequality, repression, and foreign influence. However, the next phase—solidifying the new regime—was far from smooth.

Examples

• Khomeini’s concept of velayat-e faqih placed Islamic jurists in ultimate decision-making positions.
• The Shah’s departure left Iran in political limbo, quickly filled by Khomeini's followers.
• Public approval for the Islamic Republic was confirmed through a national referendum.

5. Unrest in Post-Revolution Iran

The early days of the Islamic Republic were marked by chaos. Power struggles erupted between secular politicians and Khomeini’s clerics. Economic shortages and vigilante justice bred instability. Even as revolutionary goals inspired hope, violent crackdowns and factionalism deepened divisions.

Khomeini navigated these challenges with precision. He skillfully balanced alliances and avoided alienating potential supporters. This cautious strategy helped him avert the rolling revolutions seen in places like France and Russia, where initial revolutionary leaders were often overthrown by competing factions.

Amid this disarray, people’s expectations for peace and prosperity were tested. Yet, Khomeini’s careful maneuvering ensured the long-term dominance of clerical power.

Examples

• Food shortages stemmed from strikes and revolutionary activities.
• Vigilante groups targeted individuals affiliated with the previous regime.
• Khomeini's inclusive governance included secular politicians, preventing immediate fracturing.

6. The Iran–Iraq War Escalated Internal Tensions

The 1980 invasion of Iran by Iraq weakened the Islamic Republic internally. At the same time, factional disputes intensified. Khomeini faced opposition from Iran’s first president, Abolhassan Bani-Sadr, who was ousted in 1981.

Violence escalated as political factions clashed. Terror attacks and systematic executions became frequent. Disputes between leftist ideals and conservative religious principles fractured the revolution’s unity. The war’s casualties and resource demands only deepened societal divisions.

Yet, despite the unrest, Khomeini’s regime maintained stability, demonstrating the tightly controlled nature of its governance.

Examples

• Bani-Sadr was forced out of office and into hiding after clashing with Khomeini.
• Over 2,900 deaths occurred in factional violence between 1981 and 1982.
• The People’s Mujahedin bombed the Islamic Republican Party’s headquarters in June 1981.

7. Changes to the Constitution in 1989

Khomeini’s death in 1989 brought constitutional changes intended to stabilize the beleaguered Islamic Republic. His successor, Ali Khamenei, was not as charismatic, prompting the dissolving of the prime minister’s role and a centralization of executive power with the Supreme Leader.

These changes streamlined governance to avoid power struggles. Though criticized for their authoritarian slant, the changes secured Iran’s short-term stability during a transition fraught with potential conflict.

Examples

• A special assembly revised the constitution, abolishing the role of prime minister.
• The Supreme Leader’s eligibility criteria were revised to accommodate Khamenei.
• The Majles’s power was curtailed, concentrating authority in executive roles.

8. The Reform Movement Emerged in the 1990s

In the late ‘90s, intellectuals began advocating for a rethinking of religion’s role in governance. Reformists argued for the separation of religion and politics, citing corruption among clerics as evidence. Abdolkarim Sorush became a prominent voice, blending religious and scientific thought in his writings.

This movement gained traction with ordinary citizens, but government crackdowns hindered its progress. However, these voices of reform inspired calls for freedoms that would shape opposition movements in the decades ahead.

Examples

• Reformists accused clerics of distorting Islam to subjugate women.
• Abdolkarim Sorush’s works argued for complementing religious and democratic ideas.
• Reformist writers and clerics faced arrest, which only highlighted their ideas further.

9. The Contentious 2009 Presidential Election

Iran’s 2009 election shocked the country when Mahmoud Ahmadinejad was re-elected amidst allegations of fraud. Protests swept the streets as citizens demanded a fair vote count. These demonstrations marked the rise of the Green Movement, which advocated for reform and transparency.

In response, the government launched a brutal crackdown, but the movement left a lasting impression. It revealed deep frustrations with corruption and oppression, setting the stage for ongoing social unrest.

Examples

• Voter distribution reports revealed suspiciously uniform results across regions.
• A million people protested in the aftermath, demanding accountability.
• Opposition leaders Mir Hosein Musavi and Mehdi Karroubi were placed under house arrest.

Takeaways

1. Study the balance of religion and democracy in the Iranian government to better grasp its complexities.
2. Explore the role of public opinion and protests in shaping political transformations.
3. Consider how differing reformist and conservative ideologies continue to shape Iran’s future.