Introduction
Iran, a nation with a rich and ancient history stretching back thousands of years, has undergone dramatic transformations in the 20th and 21st centuries. From the rule of powerful shahs to the establishment of an Islamic Republic, the country has experienced revolutions, wars, and ongoing tensions between tradition and modernity. In "Revolutionary Iran," historian Michael Axworthy provides a comprehensive look at the forces that have shaped modern Iran, with a particular focus on the pivotal events leading up to and following the 1979 Islamic Revolution.
This book offers readers a nuanced understanding of Iran's complex political landscape, the interplay between religion and governance, and the ongoing struggles for power and identity within Iranian society. By examining key historical moments and the influential figures who shaped them, Axworthy illuminates the path that led Iran to its current position on the world stage.
The Seeds of Revolution: Early 20th Century Iran
The roots of Iran's revolutionary spirit can be traced back to the early 1900s, when the country was still known to much of the world as Persia. At the turn of the century, Iran was ruled by the Qajar dynasty, but economic instability and growing dissatisfaction with monarchical rule were beginning to create cracks in the system.
In 1905, these tensions came to a head as demonstrators took to the streets to protest economic conditions and demand political reforms. The situation escalated quickly, with police violence against protesters leading to further unrest. By August 1906, the ruling Shah, Mozaffar od-Din Shah, was forced to make concessions. He agreed to the establishment of a national assembly, known as the Majles, marking a significant step towards constitutional governance in Iran.
The first Majles convened in October 1906 and quickly set about drafting a constitution. This document, ratified by the Shah just days before his death, represented a major shift in Iranian politics. It declared that the Shah's sovereignty came from the people rather than divine right, established Shi'ia Islam as the state religion, and created a committee of clergy to review legislation.
However, this initial push for constitutional reform faced significant challenges. Conservative religious leaders, known as the ulema, began to view the new laws as a threat to their traditional authority. The new Shah, Mohammad Ali Shah, was also skeptical of the Majles and attempted to reassert absolute monarchical power through a military coup in 1908.
While the Shah's coup succeeded in Tehran, it failed elsewhere in the country. Revolutionaries managed to counter the move, forcing Mohammad Ali Shah into exile in 1909. His young son, Ahmad, took the throne, and the constitutionalists regained control. However, the country remained deeply divided, with political assassinations becoming commonplace on both sides of the ideological divide.
By the end of 1911, conservative factions had managed to dismiss the Majles, seemingly putting an end to the revolutionary movement. However, the ideas of constitutionalism and reform had taken root in Iranian society, setting the stage for future upheavals.
The Rise of the Pahlavi Dynasty
The discovery of oil in southwestern Iran in 1908 by a British venture marked a turning point in the country's history. By 1920, Britain had become the dominant foreign power in Iran, but the country was also feeling the strain of colonial influence.
It was in this context that Reza Khan, an Iranian military officer, rose to prominence. With tacit British approval, Khan staged a successful military coup in Tehran in 1921. Initially establishing himself as prime minister, Khan experimented with different forms of government before ultimately having himself crowned as Shah in 1925, adopting the name Pahlavi and founding a new dynasty.
Reza Shah Pahlavi's rule was characterized by a program of modernization and secularization. He implemented wide-ranging reforms, including:
- Reorganizing the legal system with European-style civil and penal codes
- Investing heavily in creating a modern army
- Banning traditional dress, including the veil, in favor of Western-style clothing
- Launching a massive education drive, dramatically increasing school attendance and founding Iran's first modern university in Tehran
These reforms were generally popular among constitutionalists and even some religious leaders who saw Reza Shah as a force for national development. However, his methods were often brutal, using the newly modernized army to suppress dissent, particularly in rural areas.
Reza Shah's rule marked a period of significant transformation for Iran, but it was relatively short-lived. His son, Mohammad Reza Shah, would inherit a country on the brink of even greater changes.
The Road to Revolution: 1970s Iran
By the 1970s, Iran had experienced tremendous economic growth, largely due to its booming oil industry. However, this prosperity was not evenly distributed, and social inequality and corruption were rampant. Mohammad Reza Shah, who had succeeded his father, faced increasing international pressure over his regime's poor human rights record.
In response to this pressure, the Shah began to relax some of the regime's repressive policies. Political prisoners were released, and the government engaged with human rights organizations. This loosening of control created openings for political opposition to emerge from hiding.
One pivotal moment came in October 1977, when the Goethe-Institut in Tehran hosted a series of poetry readings. These events quickly became a forum for criticism of the Shah's regime, with speakers calling for greater freedoms and an end to censorship. The readings drew increasingly large crowds, with people traveling from across the country to attend.
The growing discontent culminated in a massive demonstration on September 4, 1978, during the celebration of Eid-e Fetr. What began as open-air prayers transformed into a protest, with hundreds of thousands of people filling the streets of Tehran, chanting in support of exiled religious leader Ayatollah Khomeini.
Just days later, the situation took a violent turn when soldiers fired into crowds at a follow-up demonstration, killing around 80 people. Rather than quelling the unrest, this massacre only fueled further protests throughout the autumn.
These events revealed the deep-seated tensions within Iranian society. Despite the country's economic growth, many Iranians felt that fundamental social and political changes were necessary to address long-standing grievances. The stage was set for a full-scale revolution that would reshape Iran's political landscape.
The 1979 Revolution and the Birth of the Islamic Republic
The return of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini to Iran on February 1, 1979, marked a turning point in the country's history. Khomeini, a high-ranking cleric who had been exiled in 1964 for his criticism of the government, had maintained a significant following in Iran and continued to influence the country's politics from afar.
Khomeini's vision for Iran was based on the principle of velayat-e-faqih, or guardianship of the Islamic jurist. This concept, which he had outlined in his book "Islamic Government," argued that the only legitimate law was Islamic law as interpreted by the descendants of the Prophet Mohammad. Khomeini declared the existing Iranian Constitution illegitimate because it allowed for a monarchy, which he claimed was opposed to Islamic principles.
Sensing the shifting tides, the Shah fled Iran on January 16, 1979. Within days of his arrival, Khomeini held a press conference to announce plans for establishing an Islamic state. He proposed a referendum to confirm popular support, followed by the creation of a constituent assembly to write a new constitution, and then elections for a new Majles.
The transition of power was not entirely smooth. The Shah's appointed prime minister, Shapur Bakhtiar, initially refused to step down, leading to clashes between government forces and revolutionary factions. However, when the army declared its neutrality on February 11, Bakhtiar was forced into hiding, and the revolution was declared victorious.
This date is still celebrated in Iran as the anniversary of the Islamic Revolution. However, the end of the monarchy was just the beginning of a new chapter in Iran's history, one that would be marked by both hope and turmoil.
The Immediate Aftermath of the Revolution
The months following the revolution were characterized by both excitement and chaos. While many Iranians were thrilled at the prospect of change, the country faced numerous challenges:
Shortages of basic goods: Strikes leading up to the revolution had disrupted supply chains, leading to scarcity of food, cooking fuel, and other essentials.
Street violence: Gangs of young men roamed the streets, targeting supporters of the old regime and sometimes foreigners.
Political uncertainty: The old government had been replaced by multiple independent centers of power, including local revolutionary committees that operated with little oversight.
These conditions of uncertainty, a multipolar political system, and occasional extrajudicial violence would become enduring features of the Islamic Republic.
Amidst this chaos, Khomeini and his allies demonstrated remarkable political acumen. Rather than seizing power outright, Khomeini collaborated with a wide range of groups and even allowed secular politicians to hold positions of responsibility in the government. This approach helped prevent the kind of successive waves of revolution that had characterized other historical upheavals, such as the French and Russian revolutions.
By carefully consolidating his power and building a broad base of support, Khomeini was able to maintain his influence over Iran's religious, cultural, and social spheres until his death in 1989.
Internal Strife and External Threats
The early 1980s were a tumultuous time for the newly established Islamic Republic. As the country struggled to find its footing internally, it also faced external threats.
In 1980, neighboring Iraq, sensing Iran's weakness, launched an invasion. This conflict would develop into an eight-year war, draining Iran's resources and shaping its foreign policy for decades to come.
Internally, political divisions quickly emerged. By 1981, Khomeini was at odds with Iran's first president, Abolhassan Bani-Sadr. The conflict resulted in Bani-Sadr being stripped of his position and forced into hiding.
Violence between political factions escalated dramatically. On June 28, 1981, a massive bomb exploded at the headquarters of the Islamic Republican Party (IRP), which represented Khomeini's followers. The attack, believed to have been carried out by the People's Mujahedin of Iran (an organization that combined Marxist and Islamic ideologies), killed more than 70 people.
In response, the IRP cracked down hard on opposition groups. Arrests, executions, and armed confrontations in the streets became commonplace. According to Amnesty International, nearly 3,000 people died from executions, torture in prison, and street clashes in the year following Bani-Sadr's removal from office.
This period also exposed ideological contradictions within the revolutionary movement. While both left-wing and right-wing factions were committed to improving living conditions for the lower classes and expanding education and health services, there were stark differences in their visions for Iranian society. Conservative elements, backed by Khomeini, pushed for restrictive social policies, particularly regarding the status of women.
Economic debates further highlighted these divisions. The revolution and the Iran-Iraq War had led to greater state control over various economic sectors. Left-wing factions generally supported this development, while the merchant class (bazaari) was skeptical of increased government intervention in the economy.
These internal conflicts and external pressures put enormous strain on Iranian politics and society, setting the stage for further changes in the years to come.
Constitutional Changes and the Post-Khomeini Era
As the Islamic Republic approached its tenth anniversary in February 1989, it faced a looming transition. Ayatollah Khomeini, the figurehead of the revolution and the country's supreme leader, was gravely ill with cancer and heart disease.
Recognizing the need to ensure a smooth succession and address ongoing political challenges, Khomeini convened an assembly to revise the constitution. The existing system, with its three centers of authority (supreme leader, president, and prime minister), had led to political gridlock and factionalism.
The constitutional revisions, completed on July 8, 1989, made several significant changes:
- Abolished the office of prime minister
- Transferred some presidential powers to the supreme leader
- Reduced the power of the Majles (parliament)
- Modified the requirements for the supreme leader, allowing Ali Khamenei (Khomeini's chosen successor) to assume the role despite not being a marja (a highest-ranking cleric)
These changes were put to a referendum on July 28, coinciding with the election of a new president, Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani, who had also been favored by Khomeini.
Khomeini's decision to revise the constitution before his death was a strategic move. He recognized that his personal charisma and political skill had been crucial in maintaining his authority, and that no successor would be able to govern in quite the same way. The constitutional changes were designed to provide a stronger legal basis for the authority of the supreme leader and president, helping to ensure stability after Khomeini's passing.
However, these structural changes did little to address the growing discontent among ordinary Iranians. Many questioned whether the Islamic Republic was truly serving their interests, setting the stage for future calls for reform.
The Rise of the Reform Movement
In the late 1990s, a new intellectual movement emerged in Iran, calling for political and social reforms within the framework of the Islamic Republic. This movement was characterized by a reexamination of the relationship between religion and politics.
One of the key figures in this movement was Abdolkarim Sorush, a teacher and writer who argued that religion should be considered alongside other forms of knowledge, rather than as a separate, inviolable sphere. Sorush contended that religion and politics should be kept separate, arguing that the entanglement of the two had led to the corruption of religious authorities.
This idea resonated with many Iranians who had become disillusioned with the religious establishment that had come to power after the revolution. There was a growing sentiment that the country had simply replaced one form of corrupt leadership with another.
The reform movement also focused on human rights issues. Thinkers like the cleric and journalist Yusefi Eshkevari challenged traditional interpretations of Islamic texts, arguing that conservative readings of the Koran had been used to justify the subjugation of women, when in fact the text supported no such oppression.
Despite facing persecution from the government, the reform movement continued to gain traction. By 2003, reformist ideas had entered mainstream political discourse, and many Iranians began to hope for progressive change within their country.
However, the reform movement faced significant challenges. Widespread corruption and political obstruction led many citizens to become disillusioned with the electoral process. In the 2003 local council elections in Tehran, voter turnout plummeted to just 12 percent, allowing conservatives to win easily.
This trend continued in the 2005 presidential election, when many reformists chose to boycott the vote. The result was the election of Mahmud Ahmadinejad, a hard-line nationalist whose confrontational style would come to define Iranian politics for the next several years.
The 2009 Election Crisis and the Green Movement
The 2009 Iranian presidential election marked a turning point in the country's recent history. As the election approached, public enthusiasm coalesced around opposition candidate Mir Hosein Musavi, who represented hope for reform and change.
However, the election results, announced on June 12, 2009, shocked many Iranians. Incumbent president Mahmud Ahmadinejad was declared the winner by a substantial margin, a result that many found suspicious. Analysis of the voting patterns revealed an unnaturally consistent distribution of votes across different regions, raising further doubts about the legitimacy of the results.
The response was immediate and unprecedented. Within days of the election, an estimated one million or more Iranians took to the streets of Tehran, demanding Ahmadinejad's removal. These protests, which came to be known as the Green Movement (named after the color used in Musavi's campaign), were remarkable for their size and diversity.
The protests occurred against a backdrop of growing dissatisfaction with the regime. Just months earlier, in March 2009, there had been widespread outrage over the harsh treatment of women demonstrating for equal rights.
The government's response to the Green Movement was severe. As protests continued into the autumn, the regime cracked down hard, with reports emerging of deaths and torture of people in police custody. By February 2010, the government had taken to sealing off areas designated for official celebrations, allowing access only to regime supporters.
The repression culminated in the house arrest of Musavi and another opposition candidate, a situation that persists to this day.
While the Green Movement did not succeed in overturning the election results or fundamentally changing Iran's political system, it had a profound impact on the country. The regime's legitimacy was severely damaged, and many reformists, politicians, and journalists chose exile over living under what they saw as an increasingly totalitarian state.
The Ongoing Struggle for Iran's Future
As we reflect on Iran's tumultuous modern history, it's clear that the country continues to grapple with fundamental questions about governance, religion, and national identity. The Islamic Republic remains an unusual hybrid of theocratic and democratic elements, with ongoing tensions between these sometimes conflicting principles.
Since the 1979 revolution, Iran has experienced periods of reform and retrenchment, international isolation and attempts at engagement. The country's politics are shaped by a complex interplay of factors, including:
- The role of religion in governance
- The balance of power between elected officials and appointed religious authorities
- Economic challenges, including sanctions and internal mismanagement
- A young, educated population with aspirations for greater freedom and engagement with the world
- Regional geopolitical tensions, particularly with Saudi Arabia and Israel
- The ongoing dispute with Western powers over Iran's nuclear program
Despite the challenges it faces, Iran remains a country of immense cultural richness and potential. Its people have shown remarkable resilience in the face of political repression, economic hardship, and international isolation.
The struggle between conservative and reformist elements within Iranian society is likely to continue for the foreseeable future. While the conservative establishment maintains a firm grip on power, the desire for change among many Iranians, particularly the younger generation, remains strong.
International relations will also play a crucial role in shaping Iran's future. The country's relationships with global powers, particularly the United States, have been marked by decades of mistrust and conflict. However, there have also been moments of potential breakthrough, such as the 2015 nuclear deal (from which the U.S. later withdrew).
As Iran moves forward, it will need to find ways to address the aspirations of its people while navigating a complex and often hostile international environment. The country's ability to balance its revolutionary ideals with the practical needs of governance and economic development will be crucial in determining its path in the coming years.
Conclusion
Michael Axworthy's "Revolutionary Iran" provides a comprehensive and nuanced look at the forces that have shaped modern Iran. From the early stirrings of constitutionalism in the early 20th century to the Islamic Revolution and its aftermath, the book traces the complex interplay of religion, politics, and social change that has defined Iran's recent history.
Several key themes emerge from this historical narrative:
- The ongoing tension between tradition and modernity in Iranian society
- The complex relationship between religion and politics, and the challenges of implementing an Islamic system of governance
- The resilience and adaptability of the Iranian people in the face of political upheaval and international pressure
- The enduring desire for reform and greater freedoms among many Iranians, despite repeated setbacks
As we look to Iran's future, it's clear that the country will continue to play a significant role on the world stage. Its strategic location, vast natural resources, and rich cultural heritage ensure that Iran will remain a key player in regional and global affairs.
Understanding Iran's history is crucial for anyone seeking to grasp the complexities of the modern Middle East. The legacy of the 1979 revolution continues to shape Iran's domestic politics and foreign relations, while the ongoing struggle between conservative and reformist elements within the country reflects broader tensions in the Muslim world.
Axworthy's work reminds us that Iran's story is far from over. As the country continues to evolve and adapt to new challenges, it will be shaped by the same forces that have driven its history for the past century: the desire for independence, the quest for social justice, and the ongoing debate over the proper role of religion in public life.
In the end, "Revolutionary Iran" offers not just a history of a nation, but a window into the complex dynamics that continue to shape one of the world's most fascinating and misunderstood countries. As Iran moves forward, the lessons of its revolutionary past will undoubtedly continue to influence its future, making this book an essential read for anyone seeking to understand this pivotal nation and its place in the world.