Introduction
In the annals of space exploration, the names of male astronauts and engineers often take center stage. However, behind the scenes, a group of brilliant women played a crucial role in making these cosmic achievements possible. Nathalia Holt's "Rise of the Rocket Girls" shines a spotlight on the unsung heroines of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), who used their mathematical prowess to launch America into the space age.
This book takes us on a journey through time, from the early days of rocket science in the 1940s to the groundbreaking space missions of the late 20th century. It tells the story of the female "computers" who performed complex calculations by hand, long before electronic computers became reliable enough for the task. These women not only broke barriers in a male-dominated field but also made invaluable contributions to some of humanity's greatest scientific endeavors.
The Birth of JPL and the First Female Computer
The story begins in 1939 when three friends - Ed Forman, Frank Malina, and Jack Parsons - founded the Jet Propulsion Laboratory at the California Institute of Technology (Caltech). Their initial goal was to develop jet engines that could help airplanes take off more quickly from shorter runways.
Among their first hires were Barbara and Richard Canright. Barbara, a math whiz, became the first female "computer" at JPL. In those days, "computer" referred to a person who performed calculations, not a machine. Barbara's job was to crunch numbers related to force and propulsion, a task that required immense skill and patience.
The work was painstaking and time-consuming. A single experiment could take a week of calculations and fill up to eight notebooks. As the workload increased, JPL began recruiting more female computers to assist Barbara. Virginia Prettyman and Macie Roberts soon joined the team.
Expanding Horizons: JPL's Growth and Military Contracts
JPL's early experiments with jet-assisted takeoff were successful, reducing airplane takeoff distances by 50 percent. This achievement came at an opportune time, just months before the United States entered World War II. As a result, JPL secured a lucrative contract from the US Army, allowing for rapid expansion.
The laboratory's facilities, hidden in the canyons outside Los Angeles, grew in size and number. They hired more engineers and computers, advertising in newspapers and on college bulletin boards. Interestingly, becoming a computer didn't require a degree - just skills in advanced math. This was fortunate, as it wasn't until the 1970s that a significant number of women were able to obtain engineering degrees.
During the 1940s, JPL focused on finding the optimal rocket propellant mixture. Barbara Canright and Macie Roberts spent much of their time analyzing experiment results. The breakthrough came from chemist Jack Parsons, who proposed using liquefied asphalt as a key ingredient. The final mixture, dubbed "Jack's cake," consisted of 70 percent liquefied Texaco No. 18 asphalt, 30 percent lubricating oil, and crushed potassium perchlorate as an oxidizer.
This propellant mix was a hit with the military, providing 200 pounds of thrust and using cheap, readily available materials. While JPL's stock rose due to these military successes, the team's true passion lay in exploring the final frontier: outer space.
From Missiles to Space Exploration
As JPL worked on developing the Corporal missile for the army, they simultaneously laid the groundwork for space exploration. Barbara Paulson, another talented computer, focused on a missile variant using liquid propellants and a two-stage launch system. This multi-stage technique proved crucial for long-distance rockets and later became the key to escaping Earth's gravitational pull.
JPL's ambitions extended beyond Earth's atmosphere. They initiated Project Orbiter, aiming to send a satellite into space. However, the Department of Defense decided to cancel the project in favor of working with the navy. Undeterred, the JPL team secretly continued their satellite research while working on their next project, the Jupiter-C missile.
The calculations of the computing team, including Helen Yee Ling Chow and Janez Lawson (JPL's first African-American employee), contributed significantly to Jupiter-C's success. On September 19, 1956, they sent a rocket 3,335 miles into the air, higher than any previous rocket.
The Space Race Heats Up
Despite JPL's achievements, the honor of sending the first satellite into space went to the Soviet Union with the launch of Sputnik in 1957. It wasn't until after the public failure of the navy's Project Vanguard that JPL was given the green light to launch their own satellite.
Thanks to their secret ongoing research, JPL was ready to launch almost immediately. On January 31, 1958, just 90 days after government approval, they successfully launched the Explorer satellite. Marie Crowley's calculations for the Microlock tracking system were crucial in picking up the satellite's low-frequency radio signal from thousands of miles away.
During the mission, Barbara Paulson's expertise was put to the test at mission control. When the satellite's signal was lost for eight minutes during its first crucial orbit, panic ensued. However, Paulson's calculations indicated that all should be well, and she was proven right when the signal was detected again.
Aiming for the Moon and Beyond
The success of Explorer cemented JPL's reputation as the go-to lab for space exploration. In 1958, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) was created, and JPL became one of its primary research and development groups.
While the women computers were excited about plans to explore Venus and Mars, the moon was set as the initial target for the Pioneer and Ranger programs. Susan Finley's calculations were critical in plotting the trajectories and velocities needed to get lunar probes into orbit successfully.
Meanwhile, Paulson and Helen Chow worked overtime to calculate the trajectories for the Mariner probes destined for Venus and Mars. They discovered that there were only brief windows of time suitable for the ideal voyage when the alignment between the Sun, Earth, Mars, and Venus was just right.
The Advent of Electronic Computers
By the early 1960s, electronic computers had arrived at JPL. However, these machines were still large and slow compared to the human computers. The IBM 1620, for instance, was as large as a desk. These early electronic computers were often unreliable and couldn't compete with the speed and accuracy of talented human computers like Helen Chow.
In fact, IBM's CADET (Computer with Advanced Economic Technology) was jokingly renamed "Can't Add, Doesn't Even Try" due to its poor performance. The human computers continued to outperform their electronic counterparts in calculation speed contests, with Chow reigning as the undefeated champion.
The Grand Tour: Voyager and Viking Missions
As JPL's ambitions grew, so did the complexity of their missions. The Grand Tour, later renamed the Voyager program, aimed to send a probe through the entire solar system using the planets' gravitational pulls while conserving fuel. This task required calculations of astronomical scale.
Sylvia Wallace and Sue Finley were tasked with calculating the trajectory and developing computer programs for the Voyager mission. As electronic technology improved, the computer team was required to take courses in coding and computer languages like FORTRAN and HAL.
Finley also played a crucial role in creating the Deep Space Network, a system of dish antennas placed at key locations around the Earth. This network allowed NASA's mission control centers to maintain contact with probes sent on increasingly longer journeys, such as to Jupiter and Saturn.
The women at JPL also helped write the computer code that enabled JPL to receive and process the amazing images transmitted back by the probes. Their work was instrumental in making the Voyager mission possible and in processing the vast amounts of data streamed back from space.
Another highlight was the Viking mission to Mars. Barbara Paulson's calculations were critical for plotting the probe's eleven-month journey and its entry into Mars's orbit. The mission's success, including the safe landing of the probe on the Martian surface, was due in no small part to Paulson's expertise.
The Impact of Feminism and Changing Times
The 1970s brought significant changes both in technology and society. The women's liberation movement began to make an impact, and universities finally started accepting women into engineering programs. This opened up new opportunities for women at JPL, who could now aspire to become engineers rather than being limited to computer roles.
However, challenges remained. Pregnant women were still expected to quit their jobs, forcing them to choose between family and career. But the culture at JPL was special. Helen Chow, for instance, was able to rehire Barbara Lewis after she had her child, demonstrating the strong sisterhood among the women at JPL.
Gradually, things improved. Maternity leave was introduced in the late 1960s, allowing women to have children without giving up their careers. Throughout the 1970s, Helen Chow actively hired female programmers and encouraged them to enroll in engineering classes and night school, knowing that engineering degrees would open up even more opportunities for them at JPL.
The Lasting Legacy of JPL's Women
The contributions of the women at JPL continue to impact space exploration today. The Deep Space Network built and maintained by Sue Finley remains the main communication system for US space missions. Finley's expertise has been crucial for numerous international missions as well, such as the French-Russian-US Vega mission to Venus and Halley's Comet in 1985.
While many of the early female team members and leaders like Helen Chow and Barbara Paulson had retired by the 1990s, Sue Finley continued working at JPL well into the 21st century. Her dedication to the field led her to postpone retirement until she could see the successful conclusion of the Juno mission to Jupiter in July 2016.
Today, there are more women working at JPL than at any other NASA center, a testament to the trailblazing work of the women who came before them. These pioneers may not have signed up for praise, but their contributions were instrumental in realizing the US space program's ambitious goals.
The Importance of Recognition
"Rise of the Rocket Girls" serves as a crucial reminder of the often-overlooked contributions of women in science and technology. These women performed calculations that controlled the trajectories and plotted the courses of NASA's satellites, probes, and exploratory rangers - a task akin to calculating how to shoot an arrow at a moving target from millions of miles away.
Their work was not just difficult; it was nearly superhuman in its complexity and importance. Without their expertise, many of the most celebrated achievements in space exploration would not have been possible. From the first satellite launches to the moon landings and the exploration of distant planets, these women were there, working tirelessly behind the scenes.
The Human Side of Space Exploration
One of the most compelling aspects of "Rise of the Rocket Girls" is how it humanizes these remarkable women. They weren't just brilliant mathematicians and scientists; they were also wives, mothers, and friends navigating the challenges of their personal lives alongside their groundbreaking work.
The book paints a vivid picture of the camaraderie among the women at JPL. They supported each other through professional challenges and personal milestones, creating a tight-knit community within the male-dominated world of aerospace engineering. This sense of sisterhood was crucial in helping them overcome the barriers they faced as women in a field that was often unwelcoming to their gender.
Overcoming Obstacles
The women of JPL faced numerous obstacles throughout their careers. In addition to the general societal expectations that women should prioritize family over career, they also had to contend with workplace discrimination and lack of recognition for their contributions.
Despite these challenges, they persevered. Their stories are a testament to the power of determination and passion for one's work. Many of these women continued their careers at JPL for decades, driven by their love for mathematics and space exploration.
The Evolution of Technology
"Rise of the Rocket Girls" also provides a fascinating look at the evolution of technology in space exploration. The book takes us from the days when all calculations were done by hand, through the introduction of early electronic computers, to the sophisticated systems used in modern space missions.
This technological journey parallels the evolving roles of the women at JPL. As electronic computers became more advanced, the women transitioned from performing calculations by hand to programming these new machines. Their ability to adapt and learn new skills was crucial to their continued success and relevance in the field.
The Impact on Future Generations
Perhaps one of the most significant outcomes of the work done by these pioneering women is the impact they've had on future generations. By breaking barriers and excelling in their field, they paved the way for more women to enter STEM careers.
Their legacy can be seen in the increased number of women working at JPL and other NASA centers today. While there is still progress to be made in achieving gender equality in STEM fields, the contributions of these early "rocket girls" have been instrumental in changing perceptions and opening doors for women in science and technology.
The Ongoing Journey of Space Exploration
As the book concludes, it's clear that the journey of space exploration is far from over. The work begun by the women of JPL continues today, with new generations of scientists and engineers building on their foundations to push the boundaries of human knowledge even further.
From the exploration of Mars to the search for exoplanets that could harbor life, the spirit of curiosity and innovation that drove the early rocket girls lives on. Their story serves as an inspiration not just for women in STEM, but for anyone who dreams of reaching for the stars.
Final Thoughts
"Rise of the Rocket Girls" is more than just a historical account of women in space science. It's a celebration of human ingenuity, perseverance, and the power of diversity in driving scientific progress. The book reminds us that behind every great achievement are countless unsung heroes whose contributions, though often overlooked, are no less vital.
As we continue to explore the cosmos and push the boundaries of human knowledge, it's crucial to remember and honor the pioneers who made it all possible. The women of JPL, with their mathematical brilliance and unwavering dedication, are true heroes of the space age. Their story is a testament to what can be achieved when talent is recognized and nurtured, regardless of gender or background.
In an age where diversity and inclusion in STEM fields are more important than ever, the story of the rocket girls serves as both an inspiration and a call to action. It challenges us to recognize and celebrate the contributions of all individuals in scientific endeavors, and to ensure that the next generation of scientists and explorers truly represents the diversity of human talent and experience.
As we look to the future of space exploration, with ambitious plans for returning to the moon, establishing a presence on Mars, and venturing even further into our solar system, we can draw inspiration from the dedication and brilliance of the women who helped launch the space age. Their legacy lives on in every calculation, every launch, and every new discovery made in the vast expanse of space.
"Rise of the Rocket Girls" is not just a look back at history; it's a roadmap for the future. It shows us what can be achieved when we harness the full potential of human talent, regardless of gender or background. As we continue to reach for the stars, let us remember the women who first showed us the way, and let their story inspire us to create a more inclusive and diverse future in science and beyond.