Introduction
In the 19th century, Europe was gripped by a fervor for exploration and discovery. With much of the world already mapped, one of the greatest remaining geographical mysteries was the source of the Nile River. This ancient waterway, which had nurtured civilizations for millennia, still held its secrets close. European maps of East Africa were riddled with blank spaces, and the origins of the world's longest river remained tantalizingly out of reach.
"River of the Gods" by Candice Millard tells the gripping story of two British explorers who set out to solve this age-old puzzle. Richard Burton, a brilliant linguist and cultural chameleon, and John Hanning Speke, a determined soldier with a penchant for hunting, embarked on a perilous journey into the heart of Africa. Their quest would push them to the limits of human endurance, test their friendship, and ultimately lead to a bitter rivalry that would captivate the world.
This book is not just a tale of geographical discovery, but a deep dive into the complexities of human nature, the perils of ambition, and the dark underbelly of colonialism. It's a story of triumph and tragedy, of perseverance in the face of unimaginable hardships, and of the high price paid for the pursuit of glory.
The Allure of Ancient Egypt
The story begins in 1801, in the smoldering ruins of Alexandria. Napoleon's invasion of Egypt, while ultimately a military failure, had ignited a passionate interest in the country's ancient history among European scholars. The French dictator had brought not just soldiers, but also scientists and researchers eager to uncover the secrets of this ancient land.
One of the most tantalizing mysteries was the meaning of the hieroglyphs that adorned Egypt's grand monuments and tombs. For centuries, these cryptic markings had defied interpretation, holding the key to understanding an entire civilization.
As French fortunes in Egypt waned and they were forced to withdraw, the British made a momentous discovery in the rubble of Alexandria: the Rosetta Stone. This artifact, with the same text written in three different scripts - including one known to scholars - would finally unlock the puzzle of hieroglyphs.
The deciphering of the Rosetta Stone sparked a wave of Egyptomania across Europe. Suddenly, the mysteries of this ancient civilization seemed within reach. But as one puzzle was solved, others emerged, and none was more captivating than the question of the Nile's source.
The Nile: A River of Mystery
The Nile had long been a source of fascination and frustration for explorers. Ancient writers like Herodotus had speculated wildly about its origins, while Roman emperors had sent failed expeditions to find its source. The phrase "easier to find the source of the Nile" had even become a common expression for an impossible task.
By the 19th century, Europeans knew that the Nile had two main branches: the White Nile and the Blue Nile. The source of the shorter Blue Nile had been discovered in 1770 by Scottish explorer James Bruce. But the origins of the longer White Nile remained a mystery, hidden somewhere in the vast, uncharted interior of Africa.
The challenge was immense. Simply sailing upstream was not an option due to the Sudd, a massive, impenetrable swamp. Any expedition would have to trek overland from the East African coast, facing hundreds of miles of harsh, unknown territory. The dangers were numerous: deadly animals, debilitating diseases, potentially hostile local communities, and the unforgiving African climate.
When the Royal Geographical Society was founded in London in 1830, finding the source of the Nile quickly became one of its primary objectives. They needed someone exceptional for this task - someone with a unique combination of skills, including cartography, botany, ethnology, and linguistics. They found their man in Richard Burton.
Richard Burton: The Enigmatic Explorer
Richard Burton was a man out of step with his time. Born in Britain but raised across Europe, he developed a lifelong fascination with other cultures, languages, and ways of life. His cosmopolitan outlook and respect for the foreign set him apart in Victorian Britain, where his atheism and rumored sexual escapades made him something of an outsider.
Burton's mind was like a finely tuned machine, capable of mastering any subject with ease. He was a gifted writer, producing beautiful and insightful works on the cultures he encountered. His knowledge of local customs was encyclopedic, and he was one of the most skilled swordsmen of his day. He could operate complex scientific equipment with precision, making him ideally suited for the rigors of exploration.
But it was Burton's linguistic abilities that truly set him apart. By the end of his life, he could speak an astonishing 25 languages, often learning them with remarkable speed. While serving as an officer in colonial India, he mastered Hindustani in just six months, outperforming seasoned linguists in language exams.
In 1830, Burton returned from Arabia, where he had learned Arabic fluently and even disguised himself as a Muslim to study religious rites. His proposal to the Royal Geographical Society was audacious: he would lead an expedition to find the source of the Nile. The Society, recognizing his unique qualifications, agreed.
The plan was to begin in Aden, a British port in modern-day Yemen, before sailing to East Africa and landing in Somaliland. This region was largely unexplored by Europeans and had a reputation for danger. Just a few years earlier, a French explorer had been tortured and killed there while attempting to trek inland.
John Hanning Speke: Burton's Unlikely Partner
As Burton prepared for the expedition in Aden, he realized he needed a second-in-command. His first choice had died suddenly, leaving him with John Hanning Speke as the alternative.
Speke was, in many ways, Burton's polar opposite. Where Burton was intellectual and cosmopolitan, Speke was a man of action who prided himself on his discipline and masculinity. He preferred hunting exotic animals to learning local languages or mastering scientific equipment. Speke was not a gifted communicator, either in speech or writing, and he harbored a tendency towards jealousy and resentment.
The stark differences between these two men would become the driving force behind much of the drama that was to unfold.
Preparing for the Unknown
Burton and Speke set about organizing their expedition, a task that was both complex and expensive. They hired a small army of local people to serve as cooks, porters, guards, and guides. These individuals, whose contributions would often go unacknowledged, were essential to the success of the mission.
When the expedition finally reached the east coast of Africa, their numbers had dwindled to just 40 people, including only eight inexperienced guards armed with swords and muskets. This small force would have to face the unknown dangers of the African interior.
Paying for this small army presented its own challenges. Most were promised about five dollars per month, to be paid upon their return - if they returned at all. But these weren't ordinary dollars; they were silver bullion coins used in international trade. While these might be acceptable currency near the coast, they would be useless further inland where many communities operated on barter economies.
To trade with inland communities, the expedition needed to carry brass wire, cloth, and beads in a variety of colors. These items were essential for participating in the kuhonga system, a cultural practice of gift-giving where foreigners paid respects to local rulers and communities.
Beyond personnel and currency, the expedition required an enormous amount of equipment. Clothes, tents, bedding, furniture, scientific instruments, books, insect nets, ammunition, food supplies, and cooking utensils all had to be transported. This gear was loaded onto 50 camels and six mules, with sentries keeping watch over the valuable animals at night and Somali archers guarding them while they grazed during the day.
Disaster Strikes
With all the preparations complete, the expedition was finally ready to embark on its journey into the unknown. However, their dreams of discovery were nearly shattered before they even began.
While camped on the Somaliland coast, still in the preparatory stages of their inland journey, Burton and Speke were awakened in the middle of the night by the cries of their sentries. A force of about 350 Somali warriors had launched an attack on the camp, quickly overwhelming the eight guards.
In the chaos and violence of the pitch-black night, Burton and Speke found themselves fighting not just for their dream of discovery, but for their very lives. The odds were overwhelmingly against them. Both men eventually managed to find refuge aboard an Arab ship off the coast, but not before suffering severe injuries.
Burton had been impaled through both cheeks by a javelin, while Speke had been captured, tortured, and repeatedly stabbed. Battered and broken, both physically and emotionally, they were forced to accept a harsh reality: their quest for geographical immortality was over before it had truly begun.
The Seeds of Rivalry
Returning to Britain, both men were shadows of their former selves. While Burton nursed his wounds openly, Speke harbored a silent resentment that would grow into a consuming rivalry.
Speke's bitterness stemmed from several sources. He felt that Burton had questioned his courage during the heat of battle, a slight to his masculinity that he couldn't forgive. Moreover, upon their return, Burton had handed over the hunting trophies and animal specimens Speke had collected to a zoologist, believing that anything gathered on a government-funded expedition was public property. Speke had intended these for his private collection on his aristocratic estate.
Adding insult to injury, Burton's book about the failed expedition portrayed Speke in an unflattering light, describing him as ignorant of Islamic customs and deficient in local languages. These perceived slights fueled Speke's desire for revenge, though he kept his feelings hidden for the time being.
Unaware of Speke's growing resentment, Burton invited him to join the next expedition to find the source of the White Nile. Despite his personal feelings, Speke accepted. He knew that accompanying Burton was his only chance of returning to East Africa, as he lacked the contacts, support, and expertise to lead such an expedition himself.
The Second Expedition Begins
One year after their disastrous encounter in Somaliland, Burton and Speke arrived in Zanzibar, an island off the coast of modern-day Tanzania, to prepare for their next journey. Their goal was to cross over to the mainland and search for the rumored "inland seas" of East Africa - what we now know as the Great Lakes Region. They believed that somewhere in this vast, unexplored area, they would find the elusive source of the White Nile.
Burton, drawing on his experience from the previous expedition, estimated they would need at least 170 people to undertake such a monumental task. However, when they finally set out from Zanzibar, their party numbered a mere 36 individuals.
As they began their trek into the interior, whispered rumors about the dangers that lay ahead - deadly animals and hostile communities - began to circulate among the porters. Some, overcome by fear, quietly removed their packs and disappeared into the surrounding wilderness. By July 1857, just a few weeks into the journey, their numbers had dwindled to only 27.
A Journey of Unimaginable Hardship
The expedition's progress was agonizingly slow. In the first three weeks, they managed to cover an average of only 11 miles per day. Some days, wracked by fever or nursing injuries from insects, animals, or the harsh terrain, they didn't move at all.
Yet they persevered, pushing through a gauntlet of environmental challenges. They endured blistering sun and monsoon downpours, oppressive humidity that rusted their weapons, deep ravines, dense jungle, murky swamps, and fields of razor-sharp grass. At each village they encountered, they stopped to recruit more porters, gradually increasing their numbers to over 100.
But as they struggled towards their goal - the mysterious "inland sea" we now know as Lake Tanganyika - their situation became increasingly dire. Their supplies, intended to last for two years, were rapidly depleting. The expedition members were forced to hunt small birds and eat ants to stave off starvation.
Disease took a heavy toll on the group. A wave of deadly fever swept through the camp, leaving many incapacitated. Burton himself became so ill that he spent nearly a year in an almost total state of paralysis, painstakingly carried by exhausted porters over mountains and through canyons.
Reaching Lake Tanganyika
After eight grueling months, what remained of the expedition finally reached Lake Tanganyika. They were a far cry from the hopeful group that had set out from Zanzibar - starving, sick, and broken in body and spirit.
As Burton slowly recovered from his illness, Speke set out on a sub-expedition in search of another rumored "inland sea" called Ujiji. Although he managed to find it, his lack of supplies forced him to turn back almost immediately. Before leaving, however, he took a momentous step: he named the lake "Victoria," ignoring the fact that local communities already had a name for it. More significantly, without any concrete evidence, he asserted that this lake was the true source of the Nile.
When Speke returned to Burton, both men knew their expedition had reached its limit. Their bodies were battered, their supplies nearly exhausted, and they had little left to trade for more. The only option left was to make the arduous journey back to the coast. During this return trip, Speke became so ill that he nearly died.
The Aftermath and Growing Rivalry
Upon their return to Britain, Burton and Speke found themselves at the center of a growing controversy. Speke, despite lacking any solid evidence, insisted to anyone who would listen that he had discovered the source of the Nile in Lake Victoria. Burton, more cautious and scientific in his approach, was skeptical of Speke's claims.
The tension between the two men, which had been simmering beneath the surface, now boiled over into open confrontation. Speke, driven by jealousy and resentment, claimed that he had single-handedly solved the world's greatest geographical mystery while Burton lay sick in a tent. A very public war of words erupted, captivating the attention of the British public and the scientific community.
Through clever maneuvering and relentless self-promotion, Speke managed to secure leadership of the next expedition to East Africa. Burton, knowing he wouldn't be invited and struggling with his deteriorating health, was forced to watch from the sidelines as his former protégé took center stage in the quest he had long dreamed of completing.
Speke's Triumph and Downfall
Speke's star was on the rise as he embarked on his third expedition to Africa. This time, he successfully proved that the Nile's principal source was indeed Lake Victoria. Upon his return, he was hailed as a celebrity, having finally solved the ancient question that had puzzled explorers for centuries.
However, Speke's moment of triumph was short-lived. Always more comfortable with a gun than a pen, his book about the expedition was so poorly written that his publisher had to hire a ghostwriter to make it readable. Scientists attacked the work for its inaccurate measurements and lack of scientific rigor.
Moreover, Speke's triumphant attitude and obsession with slandering Burton had alienated many of his former allies. His victory began to feel hollow as criticism mounted and support dwindled.
The stage was set for a dramatic showdown at the 34th annual meeting of the Royal Geographical Society in 1864. The headline event was to be a debate between the old rivals, Burton and Speke. Everyone anticipated a mismatch of oratory skills, with the eloquent Burton expected to easily outmaneuver the inarticulate Speke.
A Tragic End
But fate had one final, cruel twist in store. The day before the much-anticipated debate, Speke died from a gunshot wound while hunting on a relative's estate. Although the official inquest ruled the death an accident, many believed it to be suicide. Speke, known for his careful handling of firearms, seemed an unlikely victim of a hunting accident. The timing, on the eve of a debate he was widely expected to lose, fueled speculation about his state of mind.
Speke's death marked a somber end to the European quest for the Nile's source. Since the time of the ancient Romans, this search had claimed countless lives. Speke's may have been the last, but it was certainly one of the most poignant.
The Legacy of the Nile Expeditions
The story of Burton and Speke's rivalry and their quest for the Nile's source is more than just a tale of geographical discovery. It's a complex narrative that touches on themes of colonialism, scientific ambition, personal rivalry, and the human cost of exploration.
Their expeditions opened up large parts of East Africa to European knowledge and, subsequently, to colonial ambitions. The maps they drew and the information they gathered would be used by future explorers, missionaries, and colonial administrators. In this sense, their work was part of the larger project of European colonialism in Africa.
At the same time, their story reveals the often-overlooked contributions of local African guides, porters, and interpreters. Without these individuals, who faced the same dangers and hardships as the European explorers, none of these expeditions would have been possible.
The rivalry between Burton and Speke also highlights the personal cost of ambition and the pursuit of glory. Both men suffered greatly - physically, emotionally, and professionally - in their quest to solve one of the world's great geographical mysteries. Their story is a reminder that behind every great discovery lies human struggle, conflict, and sacrifice.
Final Thoughts
"River of the Gods" by Candice Millard offers a vivid and engaging account of one of the most famous geographical quests in history. Through meticulous research and compelling storytelling, Millard brings to life the personalities, challenges, and controversies surrounding the search for the source of the Nile.
The book serves as a reminder of the complexity of human nature, especially when faced with extreme circumstances. Burton and Speke, despite their differences and eventual falling out, both displayed remarkable courage and determination in the face of unimaginable hardships. Their story is one of both triumph and tragedy, of great achievements and bitter disappointments.
Moreover, the book provides a nuanced look at the era of European exploration and colonialism. While celebrating the bravery and tenacity of the explorers, it also acknowledges the darker aspects of their endeavors, including the exploitation of local populations and resources.
In the end, "River of the Gods" is not just about finding the source of the Nile. It's about the human drive to explore, to push boundaries, and to seek answers to the unknown. It's about the price of ambition and the complex relationships that form in the crucible of shared adversity. And it's about how the quest for knowledge and glory can both unite and divide us.
As we reflect on this epic tale of exploration, we're left to ponder the nature of discovery itself. Is it about planting flags and claiming firsts? Or is it about expanding human knowledge and understanding? The story of Burton and Speke, with all its triumphs and tragedies, serves as a poignant reminder that often, the journey is as important as the destination.