Sea Power

Introduction

In "Sea Power," author James Stavridis takes readers on a captivating journey through the world's oceans, exploring how these vast bodies of water have shaped human history and continue to play a crucial role in global politics and power dynamics. As a retired admiral and former Supreme Allied Commander of NATO, Stavridis brings a wealth of knowledge and experience to this comprehensive examination of maritime influence.

The book delves into the rich histories of the world's major oceans and seas, from the Pacific and Atlantic to the Indian Ocean, Mediterranean, Caribbean, and Arctic. Through engaging storytelling and insightful analysis, Stavridis reveals how these waters have been the stage for exploration, trade, conflict, and geopolitical maneuvering throughout the ages.

As we embark on this oceanic journey, we'll discover how the seas have influenced the rise and fall of empires, facilitated global commerce, and continue to be a source of both opportunity and tension in the modern world. We'll explore the challenges facing our oceans today, from environmental concerns to security threats, and consider the steps needed to ensure a stable and prosperous future on the high seas.

The Pacific Ocean: A Vast Arena of Discovery and Conflict

The Pacific Ocean, with its staggering size of 64 million square miles, has long captivated the imagination of explorers and nations alike. It wasn't until the 1500s that European adventurers began to uncover the secrets hidden beyond the western shores of the Americas.

Early Exploration and Discovery

Ferdinand Magellan, the intrepid Portuguese explorer, was the first European to reach the distant Pacific islands of Guam, the Philippines, and Cebu. His journey, though cut short by his untimely death at the hands of locals in Cebu, paved the way for future expeditions.

Perhaps the most celebrated sailor of the Pacific was James Cook, a captain in the British Royal Navy. In the late 1700s, Cook embarked on a series of voyages that dramatically expanded our knowledge of the Pacific. His expeditions charted previously unknown territories, including key ports in Hawaii, Tahiti, Western Canada, Easter Island, and parts of New Zealand. Cook's contributions to maritime exploration and cartography were immense, filling in vast blank spaces on the map of the Pacific.

American Expansion in the Pacific

The United States' interest in the Pacific grew significantly following the gold rush in the mid-1800s. As people flocked to the gold-rich hills of the US west coast, the need for coaling stations to support long trips across the Pacific became apparent. This led to the annexation of Hawaii by the United States in 1898, establishing it as a crucial gateway to the Pacific that continues to serve this purpose to this day.

Another significant, albeit controversial, land acquisition was the purchase of Alaska from Russia in 1867. Orchestrated by Secretary of State William Seward, this deal was initially mocked as "Seward's Folly" due to the perceived uselessness of the frozen tundra. However, as we'll see later, Alaska would prove to be a valuable strategic and economic asset for the United States.

The Pacific Theater in World War II

The Pacific Ocean became a vast battlefield during World War II, with the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941 drawing the United States fully into the conflict. This surprise attack, while shocking to many Americans, was not without precedent in Japanese military tactics. Fifty years earlier, Japan had launched a similar surprise attack on a Chinese convoy, leading to months of fighting and Japan's reassertion of its claim to Korea and other Pacific islands.

The scale of the Pacific Theater in World War II was immense, spanning a distance equivalent to that from the English Channel to the Persian Gulf. US forces engaged in grueling island-hopping campaigns, slowly pushing back well-entrenched Japanese forces. The conflict reshaped the balance of power in the Pacific and established the United States as a dominant force in the region.

Post-War Tensions and Modern Challenges

Following World War II, the United States maintained an active presence in the Pacific, intervening in both the Korean and Vietnam wars to protect its geopolitical interests. Today, the Pacific region faces new challenges, with many nations increasing their military spending and stockpiles of arms. Between 2013 and 2015, China increased its military spending by 26 percent, while North Korea doubled its budget. This arms race has brought the region closer to potential conflict, even as US and European Union defense spending has decreased.

The author argues that while escalating tensions would be unwise, the United States should not reduce its defense budget given the high potential for conflict in the region. Maintaining a strong presence and fostering diplomatic relations will be crucial for stability in the Pacific in the years to come.

The Atlantic Ocean: From Viking Voyages to British Dominance

The Atlantic Ocean, covering 40 million square miles and accounting for 20 percent of the world's surface area, has played a pivotal role in shaping world history. From the earliest explorers to the rise of naval superpowers, the Atlantic has been a stage for discovery, trade, and conflict.

Early Atlantic Explorers

While the Greeks were likely the first to venture into the unknown waters of the Atlantic, it was the Vikings who made the first recorded voyages to the New World. Between 800 and 1000 AD, these Norse seafarers were particularly active in Atlantic exploration. A notable event occurred at the end of the tenth century when a storm pushed Bjarni Herjolfsson's ship far west, leading to the first European sighting of North America.

Portuguese Discoveries and the Dawn of the Oceanic Age

The Portuguese emerged as major players in Atlantic exploration during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. Unlike the Vikings, who were primarily explorers, the Portuguese set out with the intent to expand and colonize. Their voyages were made possible by advancements in shipbuilding and navigation, including multi-masted ships and improved understanding of celestial navigation.

Key figures in Portuguese exploration included:

1. Prince Henry the Navigator (Infante Henrique), who discovered the abundance of spices and gold in northern Africa.
2. Vasco de Gama, who established a sea route to India.
3. Bartolomeu Dias, who rounded the Cape of Good Hope.
4. Pedro Álvares Cabral, whose epic voyage in the early sixteenth century connected Europe with South America, the Indian Ocean, and Asia.

These explorers ushered in the Oceanic Age, opening up new trade routes and possibilities for European nations. However, this era of discovery also led to the tragic exploitation of African people through the slave trade.

British Naval Supremacy

Great Britain's rise to naval supremacy in the Atlantic began in the 1500s under King Henry VIII, who ordered the construction of heavily armed warships. This initiative set the stage for centuries of British dominance on the seas.

The British Navy faced and overcame several rivals:

1. Spain in the 1500s: British captains, commanding lighter and more agile ships, outmaneuvered the Spanish Armada.
2. The Dutch in the 1600s: The British emerged victorious in a series of Anglo-Dutch Wars.
3. France in the 1700s: Despite French support for the American Revolution, Britain maintained its overall naval superiority.

One of the few significant defeats for the British Navy came during the American Revolution when French naval forces outgunned the British near Yorktown in 1781, helping to secure American independence.

The Atlantic in World Wars

During World War II, the Battle of the Atlantic proved crucial. British Prime Minister Winston Churchill considered the fight against German U-boats to be "the dominating factor" throughout the war. The success of both land and air campaigns depended on defeating the U-boats and ensuring safe delivery of supplies and troops by sea.

Thanks to technological advancements such as improved sonar and depth charges, as well as the work of brilliant code breakers, the Allies eventually gained the upper hand against the U-boats. This victory once again affirmed the Royal Navy's dominance in the Atlantic.

The Indian Ocean: A Vital Trade Route and Resource-Rich Region

The Indian Ocean has been a crucial venue for trade since ancient times, facilitating the exchange of spices, textiles, livestock, and various other goods. For centuries, Arabs, Persians, and Chinese traders peacefully used these waters for commerce.

European Dominance and the "British Lake"

In the late 1400s, the Portuguese became the dominant traders in the Indian Ocean. However, their supremacy was challenged in the 1600s by the highly competitive British East India Company and Dutch East India Company. These two companies eventually merged, and by the 1800s, the Indian Ocean became known as a "British lake."

The British Empire's control extended to strategic territories such as:

1. Egypt
2. India
3. Iraq
4. Kuwait
5. Kenya
6. Sudan
7. Singapore

The Suez Canal, located in Egypt, became a British "protectorate," offering a valuable link between the North Atlantic and Indian Oceans via the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea.

World War II and the End of British Dominance

During World War II, the British stronghold of Singapore fell to Japanese forces from 1942 to 1945. This allowed the Axis powers of Germany and Japan to gain a foothold in the Indian Ocean, effectively ending 200 years of British dominance in the region.

The Discovery of Natural Resources

By the late 1960s, as the British began a strategic withdrawal from the Indian Ocean, incredible natural resources were discovered in the area, particularly in the Arabian Gulf. Locations like Abu Dhabi, Bahrain, and Dubai, once humble fishing villages, were revealed to possess as much as two-thirds of the world's oil reserves and a third of its natural gas. This discovery completely transformed the geopolitical and economic landscape of the region.

Modern Tensions and Challenges

Today, the Indian Ocean region faces numerous challenges and tensions:

1. Religious conflicts: Over 90 percent of the world's Muslim population resides near this ocean, but countries are divided between Sunni and Shi'a Muslims, leading to potential conflicts.

2. India-Pakistan disputes: Since the late 1960s, cultural, religious, and geographic disputes between these nuclear-armed nations have been a cause for concern. The Kashmir region remains a particularly contentious issue.

3. China-India competition: As China expands its influence around the Indian Ocean, tensions with India, which is likely to overtake China as the world's most populous nation, continue to grow.

4. Strategic importance: With 50 percent of all world shipping passing through these waters, the Indian Ocean is arguably more important than either the Atlantic or the Pacific.

The Role of the United States

Given the strategic importance of the Indian Ocean, the United States needs to play a role in maintaining stability in the region. The author suggests that the US should:

1. Work to reduce tensions and encourage diplomacy among regional powers.
2. Better recognize India's potential as a global leader and democratic ally.
3. Strengthen ties with India, given their shared democratic values.

By taking these steps, the United States can help ensure the continued smooth operation of this vital maritime region while promoting its own interests and values.

The Mediterranean: Birthplace of Maritime Strategy

The Mediterranean Sea, despite its relatively small appearance on world maps, stretches as wide as the entire United States from east to west. This unique body of water begins at the narrow Strait of Gibraltar, separating Spain and Morocco, and is characterized by distinctive features such as the boot of Italy and the Greek peninsula.

The Cradle of Maritime Strategy

The Mediterranean's geography, with its protruding land masses and islands like Crete and Sicily, made it the perfect arena for the development of maritime strategy. It was here that the Roman, Persian, and Carthaginian empires engaged in some of history's most legendary naval warfare, devising complex battle plans to outmaneuver their opponents.

Later, the Holy Roman Empire used the Mediterranean as a launching point for crusaders to establish kingdoms throughout the Middle East, further cementing the sea's importance in geopolitical struggles.

The Rise and Fall of the Ottoman Empire

The arrival of the Ottoman Empire in the fourteenth century marked a new era for the Mediterranean. For centuries, the Ottoman Turks seemed unstoppable, expanding their influence across the region. However, their dominance was challenged in the sixteenth century by Pope Pius V, who was determined to defeat the Turks.

The Battle of Lepanto, which took place on October 7, 1571, off the western coast of Greece, was a turning point. This massive naval engagement, the largest in 16 centuries, saw 200 ships from the Pope's Holy League face off against 250 Ottoman vessels. The Pope's forces, using innovative tactics and advanced ships called galleasses, managed to force the Turks into vulnerable positions, exposing them to devastating cannon fire.

The Ottoman defeat at Lepanto revealed vulnerabilities in their naval power, leading to a gradual decline over the next 200 years. This shift in the balance of power in the Mediterranean had far-reaching consequences for the region's geopolitics.

Modern Challenges in the Mediterranean

While the Napoleonic Wars of the eighteenth century and the two World Wars of the twentieth century brought relative peace to the Mediterranean, new challenges have emerged in recent times:

1. Black Sea tensions: The breakup of Yugoslavia in the 1990s led to the Balkan Wars, resulting in ongoing conflicts and criminal activity in the region.

2. Russian aggression: Russia's annexation of Crimea in 2014 and its support for the Assad regime in Syria have increased tensions in the area.

3. ISIS threat: The presence of the Islamic State (ISIS) in the Mediterranean poses a significant security risk, particularly to European nations.

To address these challenges, the author suggests:

1. Establishing a NATO task force for surveillance and monitoring, especially around Italy, which ISIS has declared a prime target.

2. Fostering cooperation between NATO, the United States, and anti-ISIS Arab nations to gather intelligence and maintain security in the Mediterranean.

3. Developing a comprehensive strategy to counter Russian influence in the region while promoting stability and democratic values.

By taking these steps, the international community can work towards preserving peace and security in this historically significant and strategically important body of water.

The Caribbean: A Region of Colorful History and Modern Challenges

The Caribbean Sea, nestled between North and South America, has a rich and complex history that continues to shape its present-day challenges and opportunities.

The Age of Pirates

The Caribbean is perhaps best known for its association with sixteenth-century pirates, many of whom began as Protestant raiders targeting Catholic Spanish ships and colonies. Some notable figures from this era include:

1. Sir Francis Drake: One of the most famous Caribbean pirates, Drake amassed considerable wealth through his raids on Spanish treasures.

2. Sir Henry Morgan: A Welsh-born pirate who became so successful in his raids against Spanish commercial vessels that he was rewarded by England with the governorship of Jamaica. Morgan subsequently turned Jamaica into a safe haven for other pirates.

Modern Challenges and the Need for a Humanitarian Approach

In recent times, the primary criminal activity in the Caribbean has shifted from piracy to drug trafficking. The region serves as a crucial transit point for narcotics moving from South America to the United States. The author argues that the United States needs to change its approach to addressing these issues:

1. Move away from the failed "war on drugs" policy.
2. Recognize a moral obligation to help Caribbean neighbors struggling with corruption, violence, and natural disasters.
3. Adopt a more humanitarian approach to regional issues.

The Cuba Question

The author highlights the situation in Cuba as particularly important for U.S. policy in the region. He argues that it is shameful for a country so close to the United States to still be ruled by a dictatorship. The ongoing "normalization" process, marked by loosening travel restrictions, presents an opportunity for the United States to embrace Cuba as a potential partner in democracy.

To facilitate this process, the author suggests addressing the situation surrounding the Guantanamo Bay Naval Base:

1. Consider returning the land to Cuba or repurposing it.
2. Transform the base into a center for genuine humanitarian operations in the area, rather than maintaining it as a prison for alleged terrorists.

Natural Disasters and Humanitarian Aid

The Caribbean is frequently hit by devastating hurricanes and earthquakes. The author emphasizes the importance of:

1. Anticipating future natural disasters.
2. Being prepared to provide immediate and effective humanitarian aid.
3. Helping islands recover and build resilience against future catastrophes.

A Holistic Approach to Regional Improvement

The author argues that addressing the root causes of the Caribbean's problems will lead to a reduction in criminal and drug-related activity. This approach involves:

1. Reducing poverty
2. Combating violence and corruption
3. Improving overall living conditions and economic opportunities

By taking a more comprehensive and humanitarian approach to the Caribbean, the United States can not only improve regional stability and security but also strengthen its relationships with its neighbors.

The Arctic Ocean: A Region of Great Promise and Potential Conflict

The Arctic Ocean, long considered a frozen frontier, is undergoing rapid changes due to global warming. These changes present both challenges and opportunities for the nations bordering this unique body of water.

The Impact of Climate Change

The effects of global warming are particularly pronounced in the Arctic:

1. For every one-degree increase in Earth's overall temperature, the temperature at the North Pole rises by five degrees.
2. The melting of Arctic permafrost could release catastrophic levels of methane into the atmosphere.
3. As ice recedes, new maritime routes are opening up, creating opportunities for shipping and resource extraction.

Geopolitical Competition in the Arctic

As the Arctic becomes more accessible, several nations are vying for dominance in the region:

1. Russia is aggressively moving to become the dominant force in a more open Arctic Ocean.
2. Canada, Norway, and Denmark (which controls Greenland) are competing with Russia over territorial claims.
3. The United States has a major stake in the region thanks to Alaska, purchased from Russia in 1867.

The competition for Arctic resources and territory has the potential to be one of the most important geopolitical developments of our time.

Untapped Resources and New Opportunities

The Arctic region holds vast reserves of:

1. Oil
2. Natural gas
3. Valuable metals
4. New fishing areas

These resources, combined with newly accessible shipping routes, make the Arctic an increasingly important economic and strategic region.

The Need for a U.S. Arctic Strategy

The author argues that the United States has traditionally treated the Arctic as an afterthought and lacks a clear and viable strategy for the region. To address this, he suggests:

1. Acquiring more icebreaker ships: The U.S. currently has only three, while Russia has more than 30.
2. Developing cooperative partnerships with NATO and Russia.
3. Forming a robust interdepartmental agency to create a comprehensive Arctic policy.

Environmental Concerns and Sustainable Development

While pursuing economic and strategic interests in the Arctic, it's crucial to consider environmental protection and sustainable development. The author emphasizes the need for:

1. Environmentally friendly policies
2. Focus on sustainability in resource extraction and shipping activities
3. International cooperation to address climate change and its effects on the Arctic

By developing a thoughtful and comprehensive approach to the Arctic, the United States can balance economic opportunities with environmental stewardship and geopolitical stability in this rapidly changing region.

Global Maritime Challenges: Piracy, Pollution, and Overfishing

As maritime activity has increased dramatically over the past few decades, so too have the challenges facing our oceans. Today, there are between 50,000 to 60,000 commercial ships and around 5,000 military ships traversing the world's waters – four to six times more than just 30 years ago. While we've made significant advances in navigation and mapping, we've done remarkably little to address criminal activity and environmental damage caused by shipping.

The Persistent Threat of Piracy

Piracy remains a significant problem in certain parts of the world, particularly in the Gulf of Guinea, where the Islamic terrorist group Boko Haram has been regularly ambushing ships. To combat this threat, the author suggests two approaches:

1. Short-term solution: Hire visible security teams for ships as an effective deterrent.
2. Long-term solution: Address the root causes of piracy on land by improving economic conditions and political stability in affected regions.

The author notes that piracy is often a result of either desperate economic circumstances or terrorist funding operations. By tackling these underlying issues, we can work towards a more permanent solution to the piracy problem.

The Crisis of Marine Pollution

While major oil spills like the Deepwater Horizon disaster in 2010 or the Exxon Valdez spill in 1989 garner significant public attention, the author argues that we should be more concerned about the constant, less visible pollution of our oceans:

1. Industrial and agricultural companies are estimated to be pouring around 500 million gallons of toxins into the oceans every year.
2. This steady stream of pollution is far more damaging in the long term than occasional large-scale spills.

The Urgent Issue of Overfishing

Overfishing has reached crisis levels, with devastating consequences for marine ecosystems:

1. 90 percent of all fish stocks are currently exploited or overfished.
2. The number of fish stocks has dropped to half of what they were in the 1970s.
3. This rate of fishing is clearly unsustainable and threatens the long-term health of our oceans and the communities that depend on them.

The Need for International Cooperation

To address these global maritime challenges, the author calls for:

1. Increased international maritime cooperation.
2. An improved international treaty on maritime law that includes:
   • Stricter fishing regulations
   • More protected waters
   • Stronger pollution controls

By working together on a global scale, nations can better protect our oceans and ensure their sustainable use for future generations.

Factors Determining Naval Power and Steps for the United States

The author identifies several key factors that determine a nation's naval power and suggests steps the United States can take to maintain its position as a major maritime player.

Determinants of Naval Power

1. Geography: A nation needs a substantial coastline and easy access to open waters to become a significant naval power.

2. Aligned policies and politics: The country must have beneficial trade policies, positive foreign relations, and a commitment to maritime interests.

3. Financial investment: Sufficient funding is necessary to build and maintain a strong fleet and train skilled crews.

4. Alliances: Throughout history, great naval powers have relied on powerful allies and friendly ports around the world.

Recommendations for the United States

To address modern-day concerns and maintain its naval supremacy, the author suggests the following steps for the United States:

1. Maintain NATO: Despite some calls to abandon the alliance, NATO remains crucial for maintaining a strong network of allies.

2. Strengthen the fleet: The U.S. needs more ships to keep up with rivals like Russia and China.

3. Increase Mediterranean presence: The number of U.S. ships in the Mediterranean should be increased from two or three to around ten to better combat ISIS and other regional threats.

4. Enhance submarine presence in the South China Sea: More U.S. submarines are needed to balance out other nations' forces in the area.

5. Establish advanced missile defense: Implement a state-of-the-art Terminal High Altitude Area Defense (THAAD) system in cooperation with Japanese and South Korean allies to counter potential missile strikes from North Korea.

6. Strengthen ties in the Indian Ocean: Conduct more cooperative military training missions with India, New Zealand, and Australia to foster friendly relations.

7. Develop Arctic capabilities: Add at least four more icebreaker ships, open more ports, and establish an emergency search-and-rescue base in the Arctic region.

The Importance of Naval Power in Maintaining Global Peace and Prosperity

The author emphasizes that a strong naval presence is essential for maintaining peace and prosperity in the world. By implementing these recommendations, the United States can continue to play a crucial role in ensuring maritime security and stability across the globe.

Conclusion: Navigating the Future of Our Oceans

As we conclude our journey through the world's oceans, it's clear that these vast bodies of water have played a pivotal role in shaping human history and continue to be of paramount importance in our modern world. From the early days of exploration to the complex geopolitical landscape of today, the seas have been both a stage for human achievement and a source of ongoing challenges.

The author, James Stavridis, has provided us with a comprehensive look at the major oceans and seas, highlighting their unique histories, strategic importance, and the current issues they face. Through this exploration, several key themes emerge:

1. The enduring importance of naval power: Throughout history, nations that have dominated the seas have often been the most influential on the world stage. This remains true today, with maritime strength playing a crucial role in global politics and economics.

2. The need for international cooperation: Many of the challenges facing our oceans, from piracy to pollution, cannot be solved by any one nation alone. Collaborative efforts and strong international agreements are essential for addressing these issues effectively.

3. The impact of technological advancements: From the early days of sail to modern nuclear-powered vessels, technological progress has continually reshaped naval warfare and maritime commerce. Staying at the forefront of these advancements remains crucial for maintaining naval supremacy.

4. The growing importance of environmental concerns: Climate change, overfishing, and pollution pose significant threats to the health of our oceans and, by extension, to global stability and prosperity. Addressing these issues must be a priority for all maritime nations.

5. The emergence of new frontiers: As the Arctic ice melts, new opportunities and challenges are arising in this once-inaccessible region. How nations navigate these changes will have far-reaching consequences for global politics and the environment.

Looking to the future, it's clear that the oceans will continue to play a vital role in shaping our world. The United States, as a major naval power, has both the opportunity and the responsibility to lead in addressing the challenges facing our seas. This includes maintaining a strong and adaptable naval presence, fostering international cooperation, investing in new technologies, and prioritizing environmental protection.

As readers, we are left with a deeper appreciation for the complexity and importance of our world's oceans. The seas that once seemed to separate us have, in fact, connected humanity in profound ways throughout history. As we face the challenges of the 21st century, from climate change to geopolitical tensions, understanding and respecting the power of the oceans will be more important than ever.

In the end, "Sea Power" serves not only as a fascinating historical account and analysis of current maritime issues but also as a call to action. It challenges us to think critically about the role of the oceans in our lives and to consider how we can contribute to their preservation and responsible use. As we navigate the choppy waters of the future, the lessons drawn from our long history of maritime engagement will be invaluable in charting a course towards a more stable, prosperous, and sustainable world.