Introduction
Imagine waking up one day to find that everything you believed in, the very foundation of your society, had crumbled overnight. This is precisely what happened to millions of people when the Soviet Union collapsed in the early 1990s. In her book "Secondhand Time," Svetlana Alexievich captures the voices of ordinary people who lived through this extraordinary time of transition.
Through a series of interviews conducted between 1991 and 2012, Alexievich paints a vivid picture of life before, during, and after the fall of the Soviet Union. She gives voice to those often left out of history books – the everyday citizens who experienced the upheaval firsthand. Their stories are raw, emotional, and sometimes contradictory, reflecting the complex nature of this pivotal moment in history.
The End of an Era
The Coup and Its Aftermath
On August 19, 1991, a group known as the General Committee on the State Emergency (GKChP) attempted a coup while Soviet President Mikhail Gorbachev was on vacation in Crimea. The coup failed, and thousands of Muscovites took to the streets in protest. This event marked the beginning of the end for the Soviet Union.
Just days later, Gorbachev dissolved the Central Committee of the Communist Party, effectively dismantling the party itself. This sudden collapse was the culmination of a period of reform known as perestroika, which had begun around 1985.
Perestroika and Its Impact
Perestroika brought unprecedented changes to Soviet Russia. Gorbachev initiated reforms that included:
- Releasing political prisoners
- Loosening restrictions on freedom of press and speech
- Publishing previously banned books
For many, especially in cities like Moscow, it felt like a new dawn of humane socialism. However, the majority of Russians, living in villages and smaller towns, held their Communist values close to heart and were less enthusiastic about these changes.
Neither group could have predicted what came next. Instead of evolving into a more humane form of socialism, the country plunged headfirst into capitalism, a system for which it was wholly unprepared.
Divided Opinions
The effects of perestroika and the subsequent collapse of the Soviet Union continue to divide Russians to this day. People's opinions often depend on factors such as:
- Age (those born under Stalin vs. those born after perestroika)
- Geographic location (city dwellers vs. rural inhabitants)
- Personal experiences during the Soviet era
The Communist Party Perspective
Many former members of the Communist Party, like Elena Yurievna, a forty-nine-year-old secretary, feel deeply upset about the changes. While acknowledging the negatives of the Soviet system, such as informants and labor camps, they also valued the sense of compassion and camaraderie it fostered.
Elena is particularly critical of Boris Yeltsin, who became president of the new Russian state in 1990. She believes he misled the country after Gorbachev's resignation, giving false hope for a "fixed" socialism. Instead, Yeltsin ushered in an era of capitalism, dividing the country's assets among a privileged elite.
Pride in Soviet Accomplishments
Despite the criticisms, many Russians remain proud of Soviet achievements, including:
- Defeating the Nazis at Stalingrad
- Building the Dnieper Hydroelectric Station
- Putting the first man in space
However, for people like Elena, the new capitalist world feels alien and dominated by the pursuit of money. She laments that businessmen flashing expensive possessions are now valued more than writers, poets, or actors.
A Different Perspective
On the other hand, some Russians, like Elena's friend Anna, have a more positive view of the changes. While acknowledging that things didn't turn out exactly as hoped after perestroika, Anna respects what Gorbachev was trying to achieve. She fondly remembers the time before the 1991 coup when people were optimistic about the future.
The Human Cost of Change
Suicide and Despair
The collapse of Communism had a profound psychological impact on many Soviet citizens. Having been raised in a system that provided a sense of meaning and purpose, some found it impossible to adapt to the new reality. This led to a wave of suicides as people struggled to cope with the loss of their ideological foundation.
Examples of this tragic phenomenon include:
Alexander Porfirievich Sharpilo: A 63-year-old furniture factory worker who set himself on fire in his garden. His life savings, once enough to buy a luxury car, became worthless in the new economy.
Sergey Fyodorovich Akhromeyev: A highly decorated Soviet soldier who hanged himself in his office. In his suicide note, he wrote, "I cannot go on living while the fatherland is dying."
These cases illustrate the deep emotional attachment many had to the Communist system and the difficulty they faced in adapting to a new world order.
Enduring Loyalty to Communism
Surprisingly, even those who suffered greatly under the Soviet regime often remained loyal to Communist ideals. This loyalty persisted despite experiences of imprisonment, torture, and inhumane conditions in the gulags (Soviet labor camps).
For instance:
Elena Vurievna's father, a war veteran, was forced to build a railway in Vorkuta as punishment for becoming a prisoner of war. Despite this, he kept a portrait of Stalin in his living room and encouraged his daughter to join the Communist youth movement.
Vasily Petrovich, an 87-year-old, remains proud of the Soviet Union's achievements under Stalin, despite having been beaten, tortured, and imprisoned.
Anna, who grew up in an orphanage where children were routinely beaten, still joined the Komsomol (young Communists' organization) upon leaving.
This unwavering loyalty to a system that often treated its citizens brutally is a testament to the power of Soviet ideology and the sense of purpose it provided to many.
The Dark Side of Soviet Life
A Culture of Informants and Violence
The Soviet system was built on a foundation of fear, with citizens encouraged to inform on their neighbors and colleagues. This culture of suspicion permeated all aspects of life, creating a society where trust was scarce and violence was often state-sanctioned.
Some shocking examples include:
Anna's son, who worked as a state executioner with daily killing quotas. He later became a tradesman, a job his mother found more shameful than his previous role.
Vanya, who was tortured in a camp and forced to inform on his comrades. Upon release, he returned to work alongside the very person who had informed on him.
The revelation of these atrocities in the 1990s led to a complex reckoning with the past. Some former executioners committed suicide, while others, like Anna's son, were imprisoned despite their actions being state-sanctioned at the time.
The Legacy of Violence
The culture of violence didn't disappear with the fall of the Soviet Union. Many, like Anna's son, believe that future generations may resort to similar tactics. This lingering fear speaks to the deep-seated trauma inflicted by decades of state-sponsored violence.
The author's interviews reveal that, in many ways, everyone in the Soviet system was a victim – whether they perpetrated violence or suffered from it. This shared trauma continues to shape Russian society today.
The Aftermath of Soviet Collapse
Ethnic Conflicts and Civil Wars
The dissolution of the Soviet Union in December 1991 unleashed a series of bloody conflicts in various regions. Ethnic tensions that had been suppressed under Communist rule suddenly erupted, leading to violence and displacement.
Two notable examples are:
Abkhazia: Within a month of the Soviet collapse, Abkhazians began targeting Georgians and their perceived allies. The violence forced many, like Olga, a Georgian, to flee to Moscow.
Baku: Civil war broke out between Armenians and Azerbaijanis. Margarita, an Armenian married to an Azerbaijani, had to hide in an attic while pregnant and later flee to Moscow with her newborn.
These conflicts tore apart communities that had previously coexisted peacefully under Soviet rule, highlighting the fragility of the multi-ethnic state once the unifying ideology was removed.
The Persistence of Military Culture
Despite the political changes, Russia's deeply ingrained military culture remained largely unchanged. The military continued to play a significant role in society, often employing brutal tactics reminiscent of the Soviet era.
Aleksander Laskovich's account of military training reveals shocking practices designed to desensitize soldiers to violence, including:
- Beating and humiliating recruits
- Forcing soldiers to kill stray animals
- Using Stalinist interrogation techniques
The Chechen War exemplified the contradictions in Russia's military approach. Russian soldiers would simultaneously destroy Chechen homes and infrastructure while also providing aid and claiming to be there to help.
Continued Authoritarianism
Even in post-Soviet Russia, many aspects of the authoritarian system persisted:
- Arbitrary arrests and detentions
- Police brutality, especially towards ethnic minorities
- Pressure to inform on friends and associates
These practices demonstrate that despite the fall of Communism, the underlying structures of state control remained largely intact.
The Uneven Impact of Change
Urban vs. Rural Divide
The transition to capitalism affected different parts of Russia in vastly different ways. While major cities experienced rapid changes, many rural areas remained largely untouched by the new economic system.
In some village squares, Lenin statues still stand, symbolizing the enduring influence of Soviet ideology in these areas. This stark contrast between urban and rural experiences of post-Soviet life highlights the uneven nature of Russia's transformation.
The Rise of New Elites
As the country transitioned to capitalism, a new class of wealthy elites emerged, often through questionable means. This sudden and dramatic shift in wealth distribution led to widespread resentment among those who felt left behind by the new system.
The nouveau riche, with their ostentatious displays of wealth, became symbols of the inequalities inherent in the new capitalist order. This stark contrast with Soviet-era egalitarianism fueled nostalgia for the old system among many ordinary Russians.
Personal Stories of Adaptation
Embracing the New Reality
While many struggled with the transition, some Russians found ways to adapt and even thrive in the new capitalist environment. These individuals often had to reinvent themselves, learning new skills and embracing unfamiliar concepts of entrepreneurship and market economics.
For example, some former state employees became small business owners, opening shops or providing services that were previously unavailable or tightly controlled by the state. These success stories, though not universal, provided glimpses of the potential opportunities offered by the new system.
Nostalgia and Disillusionment
For others, the transition led to a complex mix of nostalgia for the past and disillusionment with the present. Many longed for the sense of security and purpose provided by the Soviet system, even as they acknowledged its flaws.
This nostalgia was often accompanied by a critique of the new capitalist order, which many saw as corrupt, unfair, and lacking in the social guarantees they had come to expect under Communism.
The Search for Identity
Redefining Russian Identity
The collapse of the Soviet Union forced Russians to grapple with fundamental questions of national and personal identity. Without the unifying ideology of Communism, many struggled to define what it meant to be Russian in the new world order.
This search for identity led to various responses:
- A resurgence of interest in pre-Soviet Russian history and culture
- A revival of religious practices, particularly Orthodox Christianity
- The emergence of new forms of nationalism
Generational Divide
The experiences and perspectives of different generations further complicated the process of identity formation. Those who had lived most of their lives under the Soviet system often found it difficult to adapt to the new reality, while younger Russians, born during or after perestroika, had no personal memory of Soviet life.
This generational divide created tensions within families and society at large, as different age groups held conflicting views on the past, present, and future of Russia.
The Role of Memory and History
Contested Narratives
As Russians grappled with their new reality, competing narratives about the Soviet past emerged. Some sought to expose and confront the darkest aspects of Soviet history, while others emphasized its achievements and positive aspects.
This struggle over historical memory played out in various ways:
- Debates over the removal or preservation of Soviet-era monuments
- Conflicting interpretations of key historical events in school textbooks
- Disagreements over how to commemorate victims of Soviet repression
The Importance of Personal Stories
Alexievich's work highlights the crucial role of personal stories in understanding this complex period of history. By giving voice to ordinary people, she reveals the nuances and contradictions that official histories often overlook.
These individual accounts provide a more complete picture of life before, during, and after the fall of the Soviet Union, offering insights into the human experience of profound social and political change.
The Ongoing Impact of Soviet Legacy
Enduring Influence on Russian Politics
The Soviet legacy continues to shape Russian politics in significant ways. Many of the power structures and governing practices established during the Soviet era persist, albeit in modified forms.
This influence is evident in:
- The centralization of power in the executive branch
- The use of state media to control information
- The suppression of political opposition
Economic Challenges
The transition to a market economy left lasting imprints on Russia's economic landscape. While some sectors modernized and thrived, others struggled to adapt, leading to widespread inequality and economic instability.
Issues stemming from this transition include:
- The concentration of wealth in the hands of a few oligarchs
- Persistent corruption and lack of transparency in business practices
- Underdeveloped infrastructure in many regions
Social and Cultural Impact
The collapse of the Soviet Union had profound effects on Russian society and culture. The sudden exposure to Western influences, combined with the loss of Soviet social guarantees, led to significant changes in:
- Family structures and gender roles
- Education and career expectations
- Attitudes towards work, leisure, and consumption
These changes continue to shape Russian society, creating both opportunities and challenges for new generations.
Conclusion: A Nation in Transition
"Secondhand Time" offers a powerful and intimate look at one of the most significant historical events of the 20th century – the collapse of the Soviet Union and its aftermath. Through the voices of ordinary Russians, Svetlana Alexievich reveals the complex and often contradictory experiences of those who lived through this tumultuous period.
The book highlights several key themes:
- The profound psychological impact of losing an entire way of life and system of beliefs
- The persistence of Soviet-era mentalities and practices even after the fall of Communism
- The uneven and often painful process of transitioning to a capitalist system
- The ongoing struggle to define Russian identity in the post-Soviet era
- The importance of individual stories in understanding historical events
Alexievich's work reminds us that major historical events are not just about political leaders and grand ideologies, but also about the millions of ordinary people whose lives are upended by forces beyond their control. It shows that the effects of such monumental changes can persist for generations, shaping a nation's culture, politics, and sense of self long after the initial events have passed.
As Russia continues to grapple with its Soviet legacy and chart its course in the 21st century, the stories collected in "Secondhand Time" serve as a powerful testament to the resilience of the human spirit and the complexities of navigating a world in flux. They offer valuable insights not just into Russia's past and present, but into the universal human experience of change, loss, and the search for meaning in uncertain times.