Introduction
Music has been an integral part of human culture for thousands of years, but the modern music industry as we know it is a relatively recent phenomenon. In "Ta-Ra-Ra-Boom-De-Ay," Simon Napier-Bell takes readers on a fascinating journey through the history of popular music, exploring how technological innovations, social changes, and economic forces have shaped the way we create, consume, and experience music.
This book offers a unique perspective on the evolution of the music business, from its humble beginnings in sheet music publishing to the digital streaming era of today. Along the way, we'll encounter colorful characters, groundbreaking artists, and pivotal moments that have defined the soundtrack of our lives.
The Birth of the Modern Music Business
Copyright Law and the Record Player
The modern music business took its first steps with two crucial developments: the invention of copyright law and the creation of the record player.
In 1710, British courts first recognized authors' rights over their written works. This legal precedent laid the foundation for the concept of intellectual property in music. Suddenly, songwriters and composers could claim ownership of their creations and receive royalties for their use.
This new legal framework paved the way for the establishment of the first music publishing house, Chappell & Co., in the early 19th century. Founded by piano shop owner Samuel Chappell and renowned pianist Johann Baptist Cramer, the company began collecting, publishing, and selling sheet music to the public.
The publishing of sheet music quickly became a lucrative business. It offered artists a more profitable and less demanding way to earn money compared to performing live concerts. For the general public, sheet music provided access to songs they might never have heard otherwise, allowing them to play and enjoy music in their own homes.
However, the real game-changer for the music industry came at the end of the 19th century with the invention of the phonograph. In 1877, Thomas Edison produced the first commercial record player, revolutionizing how people could experience music in their homes.
This technological breakthrough shifted the focus of publishing companies from sheet music to the more profitable world of records. While sheet music could last for years before needing replacement, records were played and replayed at a much higher frequency, leading to more frequent purchases and a steady stream of revenue for the industry.
The Rise of Irving Berlin and the Transformation of Pop Music
As the music industry expanded, new pop stars emerged, and none was more influential than Irving Berlin. Born in 1888 as Israel Isidore Berlin, he emigrated from Russia to the United States with his family at the age of three. After his father's death when he was eight, Berlin left home with dreams of becoming a café singer.
Despite a rough start living on the streets and working odd jobs, Berlin's passion for music never wavered. He began writing his own songs, and his talent soon caught the attention of the Ted Snyder publishing house, which offered him a standing contract. It was during this time that he changed his name to the more marketable "Irving Berlin."
Berlin's early successes were impressive, but it was his 1911 hit "Alexander's Ragtime Band" that would forever change the sound of pop music. This groundbreaking song blended elements of American music, including military brass band trumpet, with the jazz and ragtime sound of New Orleans. Its appeal crossed racial boundaries, attracting both black and white audiences.
The most significant aspect of "Alexander's Ragtime Band" was its revolutionary beat. Prior to this song, popular music typically used an "on-beat" rhythm that emphasized the first and third beats of a four-beat structure. Berlin's song inverted this pattern, using the New Orleans "off-beat" rhythm that emphasized the second and fourth beats. This new beat would come to define the future of American pop songs and influence generations of musicians to come.
Jewish and Black Artists: Outsiders Shaping the Industry
In the early 20th century, the music business was not considered a respectable career path for much of America's Anglo-Saxon population. This created an opportunity for outsiders, particularly Jewish and black artists, to make their mark on the industry.
Black musicians found success by bringing jazz to nightclubs across the country, helping the genre grow in popularity. Between 1910 and 1930, many black artists rose to prominence as jazz spread from New Orleans to the rest of the nation. Legendary figures like Duke Ellington and Louis Armstrong were among the many musicians who found success and elevated the profile of jazz music.
As these artists toured the country, they began signing recording and publishing deals, further expanding their reach. The promise of success drew more and more black artists away from the South to pursue opportunities in Northern cities like New York and Chicago.
Jewish people, who also faced limited options for prosperous work, found niches in the music business as owners of publishing companies and as songwriters. They were among the first to publish and record the songs of black artists, which in turn influenced the compositions of Jewish songwriters like George Gershwin.
In the aftermath of World War I, the majority of popular songwriters were Jewish, and many of their songs incorporated elements of black culture, drawing inspiration from jazz and blues music. One of the biggest hits of this era was "Memphis Blues," a song that has since been recorded and interpreted by countless famous musicians over the years.
This cross-pollination of musical styles and cultures laid the groundwork for the diverse and vibrant popular music scene that would develop in the coming decades.
The Impact of New Technologies
Radio: From Threat to Opportunity
The introduction of radio in the early 1920s initially sent shockwaves through the music industry. For the first time, families had a cheap alternative to the record player and could listen to a variety of music without needing a large collection of records. By simply changing the frequency, listeners could discover new artists and explore different musical styles.
At first, this development caused panic among music industry executives. Record sales declined, and there were fears that if people could listen to music for free on the radio, they would no longer buy records to hear their favorite songs.
However, this downturn in sales proved to be temporary. The music industry soon recognized radio for what it truly was: a powerful marketing tool. Rather than viewing radio as competition, they realized they could use it to promote new products and give audiences a taste of exciting new music, ultimately driving record sales.
This realization led to a symbiotic relationship between the music industry and radio DJs. The term "DJ" stands for disc jockey, reflecting their role in steering audiences toward certain songs or albums. This arrangement created a perfect system for getting the public hooked on a song and eager to purchase the album in stores.
The integration of radio into the music industry's strategy marked a significant shift in how music was promoted and consumed. It demonstrated the industry's ability to adapt to new technologies and turn potential threats into opportunities for growth and expansion.
Prohibition's End and the Jukebox Revolution
The repeal of Prohibition in 1933 had a profound impact on the music industry, creating new revenue streams and opportunities for growth. As bars and nightclubs multiplied across the country, they became important venues for music consumption and promotion.
One of the most significant developments during this period was the widespread adoption of the jukebox. This coin-operated machine, capable of playing a selection of records on demand, quickly became a fixture in bars and clubs across America. The name "jukebox" is derived from the Southern black slang word "jook," meaning "party," reflecting its role in livening up establishments.
Jukeboxes offered several advantages for the music industry:
- They encouraged customers to buy more records by exposing them to new music.
- With 250,000 jukeboxes in the United States by 1934, filling these machines accounted for over half of all record sales in the country.
- The regular rotation of songs in jukeboxes (every two to three weeks) ensured a constant demand for new music.
This technology not only boosted record sales but also played a crucial role in popularizing new songs and artists, further cementing the relationship between the music industry and public entertainment venues.
Hollywood and the Rise of Movie Musicals
As the nation emerged from Prohibition, another factor contributing to the music industry's growth was the rising popularity of Hollywood musicals. The 1933 smash hit "42nd Street" and the even bigger 1935 blockbuster "Top Hat" led a trend that would see musicals become a dominant force in cinema.
One artist who particularly benefited from this trend was Irving Berlin. Unlike many of his contemporaries, Berlin retained the rights to his songs rather than selling them to movie studios. This shrewd business decision ensured that he would continue to receive royalties every time a movie featuring his music was played, regardless of changing consumer habits.
The rise of movie musicals created a new platform for songwriters and musicians to reach a mass audience. It also established a new revenue stream for the music industry, as popular songs from films often led to increased record sales and sheet music purchases.
Post-World War II Developments
The British Invasion and the Changing Face of Popular Music
The years following World War II saw a significant increase in the exchange of music and culture between the United States and the United Kingdom. This cultural cross-pollination led to what became known as the "British Invasion" of music, with young people across America falling under the spell of "Beatlemania."
The Beatles first topped the US charts in 1964 with "I Want to Hold Your Hand," quickly followed by "She Loves You" and "Can't Buy Me Love." Their catchy, well-written songs and charismatic personalities captivated American audiences, and their popularity skyrocketed even further when they made their first visit to the United States.
The success of The Beatles paved the way for a new style of music that blended elements of rock and roll with blues, which had originated with black musicians. This fusion would come to define the sound of popular music for years to come.
The Shift to Album-Oriented Rock and Band Marketing
The music industry responded to the success of The Beatles by changing their approach to packaging and selling both records and bands. Prior to the 1960s, the focus had been on selling singles, but now the emphasis shifted to full-length albums. This change was so significant that the music industry began to be referred to as the "record industry."
Record labels started booking studio time and hiring talent to record entire albums rather than just one or two songs. This shift allowed for greater artistic expression and the development of concept albums, which would become a hallmark of rock music in the coming decades.
Another important change was the industry's focus on promoting small bands of three to five musicians, moving away from the big jazz ensembles of the past. This new model emphasized matching the image and personality of the group to their music, making them more relatable to fans.
The "British Invasion" continued with the arrival of more bands from across the Atlantic, including The Who, Cream, Traffic, Blind Faith, and Led Zeppelin. This influx of British talent had a significant impact on the popular music scene, which became predominantly white as a result.
The Rise of Music Festivals: Woodstock and Altamont
Two major music festivals in 1969 had a profound impact on the live music industry, each offering important lessons for future events.
The first was the legendary Woodstock festival, which took place over three days in the summer of 1969 in upstate New York. Despite extensive planning, the event didn't unfold as expected. Instead of selling tickets and maintaining proper security, the festival was overwhelmed by 180,000 fans who found gaps in the fences and enjoyed a largely unsupervised experience.
Despite the chaos, Woodstock was remarkably peaceful, with only two reported deaths: one from a heroin overdose and another from an unfortunate tractor accident. The festival became a symbol of the counterculture movement and demonstrated the massive appeal of large-scale music events.
In stark contrast to Woodstock's peaceful atmosphere, the Altamont Free Concert in San Francisco later that year ended in tragedy. Organized by The Rolling Stones as the grand finale to their US tour, the hastily planned event was held at the Altamont Speedway. In a decision that would prove disastrous, the organizers hired the local Hells Angels motorcycle gang for security, paying them $500 worth of beer.
The free concert drew 300,000 people, and as the day progressed, drug and alcohol use escalated among both the crowd and the Hells Angels. After several attempts by fans to rush the stage, violence erupted, resulting in the stabbing death of 18-year-old Meredith Hunter. Three other deaths occurred, along with numerous injuries and property damage.
These two events offered crucial lessons for the music industry:
- There was clearly a massive audience for large-scale music festivals.
- Such events could be profitable if properly planned and executed.
- Adequate security and crowd control measures were essential for ensuring safety.
The contrasting outcomes of Woodstock and Altamont would influence the planning and organization of music festivals for decades to come.
The Evolution of Musical Subcultures
From Underground Movements to Mainstream Trends
Throughout the history of popular music, various subcultures and genres have emerged, each with its own unique style, attitude, and often, associated lifestyle. Many of these movements began underground but eventually reached mainstream popularity, significantly impacting the music industry and popular culture.
One notable example is the hippie movement of the 1960s, which was closely associated with psychedelic rock and folk music. This counterculture movement embraced peace, love, and mind-expanding experiences, often facilitated by marijuana use. The music of this era, exemplified by artists like The Grateful Dead, Jefferson Airplane, and Jimi Hendrix, reflected these values and experiences.
In the late 1970s and early 1980s, punk rock emerged as a rebellious response to the perceived excesses of mainstream rock music. Bands like The Ramones, Sex Pistols, and The Clash championed a raw, DIY ethos that influenced not only music but also fashion and attitude.
The 1980s saw the rise of hip hop culture, which began in urban African American and Latino communities before spreading worldwide. This movement encompassed not just music but also dance, visual art, and fashion. Pioneering artists like Grandmaster Flash, Run-DMC, and Public Enemy laid the groundwork for what would become one of the most influential genres in popular music.
The Rave Culture and Electronic Dance Music
In the late 1980s and early 1990s, the underground rave culture emerged, fueled by electronic dance music and often associated with the use of ecstasy and MDMA. This movement began in warehouses and abandoned buildings before eventually moving to clubs and large-scale outdoor events.
Electronic dance music, particularly led by DJs at music festivals in Ibiza and clubs in New York or London, was perfectly suited to the rave experience. The relentless beats created a hypnotic rhythm that, combined with the euphoric effects of ecstasy, made dancers feel connected to each other and the music.
As rave culture gained popularity, it began to influence mainstream pop music, with electronic elements finding their way into chart-topping hits. Artists like The Prodigy, The Chemical Brothers, and Fatboy Slim brought electronic dance music to a wider audience, paving the way for the EDM boom of the 2010s.
Hip Hop's Journey to the Mainstream
Hip hop's evolution from an underground movement to a dominant force in popular music is one of the most significant developments in recent music history. The genre began with DJs sampling music from previously released records, using their beats as a backdrop for MCs to deliver lyrical rhymes that often spoke to modern black culture.
A pivotal moment in hip hop's journey to the mainstream was the release of N.W.A.'s protest song "Fuck tha Police" in 1988. This controversial track brought attention to the experiences of young black Americans and their fraught relationship with law enforcement. It marked a turning point where rap began to be seen as a nonviolent musical outlet for an entire generation of disenfranchised people in the United States.
As hip hop continued to grow in popularity, it became a global phenomenon, adopted and adapted by disenfranchised communities around the world. The genre's influence extended beyond music, shaping fashion, language, and popular culture at large.
The Role of Drugs in Musical Subcultures
It's important to note that many of these musical movements have been closely associated with different drugs, although this association is not universal and should not be overstated.
- Marijuana has been a staple throughout the history of rock and roll but was especially prevalent during the hippie movement of the 1960s.
- Heroin, which had been popular among some jazz musicians, influenced many artists throughout the 1970s.
- Ecstasy and MDMA fueled the rave culture of the late 1980s and 1990s.
While the use of these substances often went hand-in-hand with the music and lifestyle of these subcultures, it's crucial to recognize that drug use was not a necessary or defining feature of these movements. Many artists and fans participated in these scenes without engaging in drug use, and the music itself was the primary draw for most people.
The Digital Revolution
The Rise of Napster and File Sharing
The most recent wave of change in the music industry began with the advent of the internet and the ability to stream music at the push of a button. The turning point in this digital revolution was the launch of Napster in 1999 by college students Shawn Fanning and Sean Parker.
Napster created an online platform for sharing and discovering new music, capitalizing on technological advancements made in the 1980s and 90s. Engineers had developed ways to compress songs into small, shareable files, giving birth to the mp3 format. This key development made it possible for music files to be easily uploaded, downloaded, and shared online.
Napster's peer-to-peer file-sharing model allowed users to access a vast library of music for free, as long as they agreed to share their own music archives. With over 50 million users by 2001, Napster's popularity posed a significant threat to the traditional music industry model.
The impact of file sharing on the music industry was immediate and severe. CD sales plummeted as consumers found they could access virtually any song they wanted without paying. This period was deeply distressing for the music industry, which struggled to adapt to the new digital landscape.
Apple's iPod and iTunes: A New Business Model
The industry's fortunes began to turn around with the introduction of Apple's iPod in 2001. This sleek, portable device embraced digital music files rather than trying to fight their existence. More importantly, Apple introduced iTunes, a digital music store that offered individual songs for 99 cents each.
While this price point was significantly lower than the $3.99 typically charged for singles in physical stores, it proved to be a viable model for the digital age. With no packaging or distribution costs, the music industry eventually accepted this new paradigm.
The iTunes model marked a significant shift in how music was sold and consumed. Instead of being forced to buy entire albums, consumers could now purchase individual tracks. This à la carte approach to music consumption would have far-reaching effects on how artists and labels approached album creation and marketing.
As CD sales continued to decline, there was a steady increase in digital music sales. The music industry was gradually regaining control over the distribution of its catalog, adapting to the digital age while still maintaining the rights that courts had granted them over a century ago.
Streaming Services and the Future of Music Consumption
The next major development in digital music came with the rise of streaming services. Platforms like Spotify, Apple Music, and Pandora offered consumers access to vast libraries of music for a monthly subscription fee or in exchange for listening to advertisements.
This model further transformed how people consume music, moving away from ownership (whether physical or digital) towards access. Listeners could now enjoy a virtually unlimited selection of music without having to purchase individual songs or albums.
For the music industry, streaming presented both challenges and opportunities. While it provided a new revenue stream, the per-stream royalty rates were initially very low, leading to concerns about fair compensation for artists and songwriters.
However, as streaming services gained popularity and user bases grew, they began to generate significant revenue for the industry. The ability to collect data on listening habits also provided valuable insights for artists and labels, informing marketing strategies and even influencing creative decisions.
The streaming era has also led to changes in how music is created and marketed. With listeners able to skip tracks easily, there's increased pressure to create songs that grab attention quickly. Playlists have become a crucial tool for music discovery, leading to new strategies for promoting songs and artists.
Final Thoughts: The Ever-Changing Landscape of Popular Music
As we've seen throughout this journey through the history of popular music, the industry has always been shaped by a complex interplay of technological innovations, social changes, and economic forces. From the early days of sheet music and phonographs to the current era of digital streaming, the music business has consistently demonstrated its ability to adapt and evolve.
Several key themes emerge from this history:
Technological Innovation: Time and again, new technologies have disrupted the music industry, forcing it to adapt and find new ways to create, distribute, and monetize music. From the phonograph to the radio, from vinyl records to digital files, each new technology has brought both challenges and opportunities.
Cultural Exchange: The history of popular music is a story of cultural cross-pollination. From the blending of European and African American musical traditions in the early 20th century to the British Invasion of the 1960s and the global spread of hip hop, music has always transcended cultural and national boundaries.
Outsider Influence: Many of the most significant developments in popular music have come from outsiders – whether it was Jewish songwriters and publishers in the early 20th century, African American jazz and blues musicians, or young innovators in the digital age.
Adaptation to Social Changes: Popular music has always reflected and responded to broader social trends and movements, from the counterculture of the 1960s to the rise of hip hop as a voice for marginalized communities.
The Balance Between Art and Commerce: Throughout its history, the music industry has had to navigate the sometimes conflicting demands of artistic expression and commercial viability. This tension has led to both creative breakthroughs and controversies.
The Power of Live Music: Despite all the changes in how music is recorded and distributed, live performances have remained a crucial part of the music experience. From jazz clubs to massive festivals, live music continues to be a vital part of the industry.
As we look to the future, it's clear that the music industry will continue to evolve. New technologies like virtual and augmented reality are already beginning to change how we experience music. The globalization of the music market, facilitated by digital platforms, is leading to increasingly diverse and eclectic musical landscapes.
Yet, amidst all this change, the fundamental appeal of music remains constant. Whether it's a catchy pop song, a soul-stirring ballad, or an energetic dance track, music continues to have the power to move us, to bring us together, and to soundtrack our lives.
The story of popular music is far from over. As new generations of artists, producers, and innovators emerge, they will undoubtedly continue to push the boundaries of what's possible, creating new sounds, new styles, and new ways of experiencing music. And as they do, they'll be writing the next chapters in the endlessly fascinating story of popular music.