The story of how England came to be is a fascinating journey through time, spanning over 600 years of history. In "The Anglo-Saxons," historian Marc Morris takes us on this journey, exploring how a group of Germanic tribes transformed the landscape of post-Roman Britain into the foundations of modern England.
In 400 AD, the island we now call England was unrecognizable. It was a place of Roman laws, Celtic languages, and Latin-speaking inhabitants. The countryside was dotted with rigid grid-like settlements, and the English language didn't even exist. Fast forward to 1066, the year of the Norman Conquest, and we find a land that is unmistakably England. The countryside is divided into shires, sheriffs keep the peace, and the locals speak a language that, while archaic, would be somewhat comprehensible to modern English speakers.
This dramatic transformation was the work of the Anglo-Saxons, Germanic peoples who settled in Britain after the collapse of Roman rule. Over the course of nearly seven centuries, they reshaped the island's culture, language, and political structures, laying the groundwork for what would become the English nation.
Morris's book takes us through this remarkable period of change, from the twilight of Roman Britain to the eve of the Norman Conquest. Along the way, we'll explore how the Anglo-Saxons arrived, how they established their kingdoms, and how they eventually created a unified English state. We'll delve into their pagan beliefs and their conversion to Christianity, examine their laws and customs, and witness the emergence of an English identity.
The Fall of Roman Britain
To understand the rise of Anglo-Saxon England, we must first look at the fall of Roman Britain. For nearly four centuries, from 43 AD to the early 5th century, much of Britain was part of the Roman Empire. During this time, the island experienced a level of peace, prosperity, and cultural sophistication that it wouldn't see again for centuries.
Roman Britain was a place of order and civilization. Its towns and cities were well-planned, featuring amenities like bathhouses, theaters, and forums. A network of roads crisscrossed the landscape, facilitating trade and communication. The economy was robust, with Britain exporting grain and manufactured goods to other parts of the empire. Wealthy Britons lived in luxurious villas with indoor plumbing and underfloor heating.
However, this prosperous era came to an end in the early 5th century. The catalyst for this change wasn't a heroic British uprising against Roman rule, but rather the gradual collapse of Roman authority across the empire.
By the late 4th century, the Roman Empire was struggling to defend its vast territories. In Britain, the number of Roman troops had been drastically reduced from about 50,000 in the 2nd century to just 15,000 by the year 300. This left the island vulnerable to raids by Picts and Scots from the north and Germanic groups from the east.
The decisive blow came in 378 when the Roman army suffered a devastating defeat in Turkey, losing 10,000 men in a single battle. This disaster left the eastern provinces of the empire exposed, forcing Rome to redirect troops from the west to shore up its defenses. Britain, already thinly garrisoned, was left even more vulnerable.
As Roman authority weakened, the carefully maintained order began to unravel. The economy collapsed as Britain was cut off from the imperial center and unable to access Roman currency. Unpaid soldiers mutinied, leading to a breakdown of law and order. The very purpose of Roman rule – to guarantee peace and prosperity – could no longer be fulfilled.
In 410 AD, after nearly four centuries of Roman rule, the last vestiges of imperial authority in Britain crumbled. The island was now on its own, facing an uncertain future and vulnerable to new invaders from across the sea.
The Arrival of the Anglo-Saxons
Into the power vacuum left by the retreating Romans came new groups of settlers from across the North Sea. These were the people we now call the Anglo-Saxons, though they didn't use this term for themselves. They were a collection of Germanic tribes, primarily the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes, who began arriving on Britain's shores in the 5th century.
Our knowledge of these early settlers is limited, but we can piece together some information from later sources and archaeological evidence. One of our main sources is the Venerable Bede, a Northumbrian monk writing in the 8th century. In his "Ecclesiastical History of the English People," Bede tells us that the first settlers came from three powerful tribes – the Saxons, Angles, and Jutes – originating from areas in modern-day Germany and Denmark.
Archaeological findings support Bede's account. Graves and objects excavated in southeast England from the 5th century bear striking similarities to those found in Saxony, Anglia, and Jutland, the regions Bede identified as the Anglo-Saxons' homelands.
But why did these Germanic peoples leave their homes to settle in Britain? The reasons are not entirely clear, but several factors likely played a role. Some archaeologists suggest that rising sea levels in their homelands may have been a factor. Another theory, put forward by the 6th-century British monk Gildas, suggests that some Anglo-Saxons were initially invited to Britain as mercenaries.
According to Gildas, the post-Roman British kingdoms were too weak to defend themselves against raids by the Picts and Scots. In desperation, they forged alliances with Germanic groups, allowing them to settle on the east coast in exchange for military assistance. If true, this decision backfired spectacularly. As more and more Germanic settlers arrived, they gradually gained the upper hand and turned on their British hosts.
The arrival of the Anglo-Saxons marked a significant cultural break with Roman Britain. Unlike the Franks who conquered Gaul (modern France) and largely adopted Roman customs and language, the Anglo-Saxons showed little interest in preserving Roman civilization. Cities were abandoned, Latin fell out of use, and Christianity – the official religion of the late Roman Empire – retreated to the Celtic fringes of the island.
The Anglo-Saxon impact on Britain was profound. They brought with them their own language, which would evolve into Old English, their own religious beliefs, and their own social and political structures. The transformation was so complete that even the name of the country changed. The Roman province of Britannia gradually gave way to Anglaland – the land of the Angles – which eventually became England.
Anglo-Saxon Society and Culture
To understand the world of the early Anglo-Saxons, we must look beyond the limited material evidence they left behind and turn to their literature. One of the most important sources is the epic poem "Beowulf," composed in the 8th century but set in 6th-century Scandinavia.
"Beowulf" gives us a glimpse into the values and worldview of Anglo-Saxon society. In this world, reputation and personal honor were paramount. The hero, Beowulf, is driven not by religious faith but by a desire for fame and glory. Bravery in battle was highly prized and richly rewarded with gifts of jewel-studded weapons and lavish feasts.
This emphasis on warrior culture reflects the reality of life in early Anglo-Saxon England. The country was divided into numerous small kingdoms, constantly vying for power and territory. Success in war brought not just glory but also material rewards. Victorious kings and their warriors could extract tribute from conquered peoples, amassing wealth and resources.
Anglo-Saxon society was hierarchical, with a clear distinction between nobles and commoners. At the top was the king, surrounded by his warband of elite warriors. Below them were the freemen, who owned land and had certain legal rights. At the bottom of the social ladder were the slaves, often captives taken in war.
Religion played a significant role in Anglo-Saxon life, though their beliefs underwent a major transformation during this period. The early Anglo-Saxon settlers were pagans, worshipping gods similar to those of their Scandinavian cousins. Woden, for example, was their equivalent of the Norse god Odin, while Thunor corresponded to Thor.
However, the 7th century saw a gradual conversion to Christianity. This process began with the mission of St. Augustine, sent by Pope Gregory I in 597, and was furthered by Irish missionaries from the north. By around 670, Christianity had become the official religion of all Anglo-Saxon kingdoms.
The conversion to Christianity had far-reaching effects on Anglo-Saxon society. It brought literacy and written culture, as monks began recording laws, histories, and religious texts. It also provided a common cultural framework that helped to unite the various Anglo-Saxon kingdoms.
Despite the cultural changes brought by Christianity, many aspects of Anglo-Saxon society remained deeply rooted in their Germanic heritage. The importance of kinship, the emphasis on personal honor, and the centrality of the warrior ethos continued to shape Anglo-Saxon life well into the Christian era.
The Rise of Anglo-Saxon Kingdoms
As the Anglo-Saxons settled into their new homeland, they began to establish distinct kingdoms. By the 7th century, several major powers had emerged, including Northumbria in the north, Mercia in the Midlands, and Wessex in the south.
These kingdoms were not static entities but dynamic powers that rose and fell over time. In the 7th century, Northumbria was the dominant force, extending its influence from the Humber to the Forth. Under kings like Edwin and Oswald, Northumbria became a center of Christian learning, producing scholars like Bede and beautiful works of art like the Lindisfarne Gospels.
However, Northumbrian power waned in the 8th century, giving way to the rise of Mercia. Under ambitious kings like Æthelbald and Offa, Mercia became the supreme power in southern Britain. Offa, who ruled from 757 to 796, was particularly influential. He subjugated all the kingdoms south of the Humber, creating a territory that closely resembled the old Roman province of Britain.
Offa's reign marked a significant step towards more sophisticated governance in Anglo-Saxon England. He issued new laws, minted coins bearing his own image, and even corresponded as an equal with Charlemagne, the powerful Frankish king. Offa also undertook major public works, most famously Offa's Dyke, an 80-mile long earthwork along the Welsh border.
The 9th century saw the rise of Wessex, the kingdom that would ultimately unite England. Under a succession of strong kings, including Egbert and Æthelwulf, Wessex gradually extended its power. However, it was Alfred the Great, who ruled from 871 to 899, who truly transformed the kingdom's fortunes.
Alfred came to the throne at a time of crisis. Viking invasions had overrun much of England, and Wessex itself was under severe threat. Through a combination of military skill, diplomatic acumen, and administrative reforms, Alfred not only saved Wessex but laid the foundations for the eventual unification of England.
Alfred's reforms were far-reaching. He reorganized the kingdom's defenses, creating a network of fortified towns or burhs. He reformed the legal system, issuing a new law code that combined existing West Saxon law with Christian principles. Perhaps most importantly, Alfred promoted learning and literacy, personally translating important works from Latin into Old English and commissioning the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, a crucial historical record.
Alfred's successors built on his achievements, gradually reconquering the areas held by the Vikings and extending West Saxon rule over all of England. By the mid-10th century, under kings like Athelstan and Edgar, England had become a unified kingdom for the first time in its history.
The Viking Threat and Alfred's Response
The rise of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms was dramatically interrupted in the late 8th century by the arrival of a new threat: the Vikings. These Scandinavian raiders, primarily from Denmark and Norway, began launching attacks on England's coasts in the 790s.
The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records the first known Viking raid in 789, when three ships landed in Dorset and their crew killed a local official. This was followed by more serious attacks, including the infamous raid on the monastery of Lindisfarne in 793. These early raids were primarily hit-and-run affairs, with the Vikings targeting wealthy but poorly defended sites like monasteries.
However, the nature of Viking activity changed in the 860s. In 865, a large Viking force known as the "Great Heathen Army" landed in East Anglia. Unlike previous raiders, this army aimed not just to plunder but to conquer and settle. Over the next few years, the Vikings overran the kingdoms of Northumbria and East Anglia, and large parts of Mercia.
By 871, when Alfred became king of Wessex, his kingdom was the last Anglo-Saxon realm still standing against the Viking onslaught. The early years of Alfred's reign were marked by a series of battles against the Vikings, with mixed results. In 878, Alfred suffered a major defeat and was forced to retreat to the Somerset marshes. However, he managed to rally his forces and achieved a decisive victory over the Vikings at the Battle of Edington later that year.
Following this victory, Alfred negotiated a treaty with the Viking leader Guthrum. This agreement established a boundary between Alfred's kingdom and the area of Viking settlement, which became known as the Danelaw. While this treaty brought a temporary respite, Alfred recognized that the Viking threat was far from over.
In response, Alfred implemented a series of reforms that transformed Anglo-Saxon England's defenses and laid the groundwork for a unified English state. One of his most significant innovations was the creation of a network of fortified towns or burhs across his kingdom. These burhs served as defensive strongholds and administrative centers, forming the nucleus of many modern English towns and cities.
Alfred also reorganized the military system, creating a standing army known as the fyrd. This force was supported by a network of thegns, local landowners who owed military service to the king. To man these defenses, Alfred introduced a system where all freemen were required to serve in the fyrd on a rotational basis.
Beyond military reforms, Alfred recognized the importance of education and culture in strengthening his kingdom. He established a court school and personally translated important Latin works into Old English, including Bede's "Ecclesiastical History" and Boethius's "Consolation of Philosophy." He also commissioned the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, a crucial historical record that continued to be updated for centuries after his death.
Alfred's reforms were remarkably successful. They not only secured Wessex against further Viking attacks but also provided a model of kingship and governance that his successors would build upon. Alfred's grandson Athelstan would go on to become the first king to rule over a unified England, largely thanks to the foundations laid by Alfred.
The legacy of Alfred's reign was so significant that he is the only English monarch to be given the epithet "the Great." His reforms transformed Anglo-Saxon England from a collection of vulnerable kingdoms into a unified and resilient state, capable of defending itself against external threats and laying the groundwork for England's future development.
The Unification of England
The process of unifying England into a single kingdom was a gradual one, spanning several generations of West Saxon kings. This process, which began under Alfred the Great, reached its culmination in the mid-10th century under his descendants.
Alfred's son, Edward the Elder (899-924), and grandson, Athelstan (924-939), continued the work of reconquering the Danelaw. Edward, working in alliance with his sister Æthelflæd, the "Lady of the Mercians," extended West Saxon control over southern and central England. Athelstan went further, defeating a coalition of his enemies at the Battle of Brunanburh in 937. This victory established Athelstan as the most powerful ruler in Britain, and he adopted the title "King of the English."
Athelstan's successors faced ongoing challenges from both Viking invaders and rival claimants to the throne. However, by the reign of Edgar (959-975), known as "the Peaceful," the unification of England was largely complete. Edgar's coronation at Bath in 973 was a grand affair, attended by kings from Scotland, Wales, and the Viking-held areas of Britain, all of whom acknowledged Edgar as their overlord.
The unification of England brought significant changes to the country's governance and society. The king's power was supported by a network of ealdormen, powerful nobles who governed large regions on the king's behalf. Below them were the thegns, local landowners who owed military service to the king.
The church played a crucial role in supporting royal power. Under Edgar, a program of monastic reform was implemented, establishing a network of reformed monasteries across the country. These monasteries became centers of learning and culture, producing manuscripts and training clergy who could serve in the royal administration.
The late Anglo-Saxon period also saw the development of a sophisticated system of law and governance. The country was divided into shires, each administered by a shire-reeve or sheriff. A system of hundreds, subdivisions of shires, was established for local administration and law enforcement. Written law codes became more comprehensive, dealing with a wide range of civil and criminal matters.
However, the unified English kingdom faced ongoing challenges, particularly from renewed Viking invasions in the late 10th and early 11th centuries. The reign of Æthelred the Unready (978-1016) was marked by repeated Viking attacks and the payment of large sums of Danegeld (tribute) to buy off the invaders.
In 1013, England was conquered by the Danish king Sweyn Forkbeard, and after a brief restoration of Æthelred, fell under the rule of Sweyn's son Cnut in 1016. Cnut's reign (1016-1035) saw England become part of a vast North Sea empire that also included Denmark and Norway.
Despite these upheavals, the fundamental structures of the English kingdom remained largely intact. When Edward the Confessor, a member of the old West Saxon royal line, came to the throne in 1042, he inherited a kingdom with well-established institutions of government and a strong sense of English identity.
The Norman Conquest and its Aftermath
The story of Anglo-Saxon England comes to a dramatic close with the Norman Conquest of 1066. This event, one of the most significant in English history, marked the end of the Anglo-Saxon era and the beginning of a new chapter in the country's development.
The seeds of the Norman Conquest were sown during the reign of Edward the Confessor (1042-1066). Edward, who had spent much of his youth in exile in Normandy, maintained close ties with the Norman nobility. He had no children of his own, and the question of who would succeed him became increasingly pressing as his reign progressed.
When Edward died on January 5, 1066, the succession was disputed. The Anglo-Saxon nobility quickly elected Harold Godwinson, the powerful Earl of Wessex, as king. However, William, Duke of Normandy, claimed that Edward had promised him the throne years earlier. Meanwhile, Harald Hardrada, the King of Norway, also laid claim to the English crown.
The result was a year of conflict that would reshape English history. Harold Godwinson first had to face Harald Hardrada, who invaded northern England in September 1066. Harold marched north and decisively defeated the Norwegian king at the Battle of Stamford Bridge on September 25.
However, just days later, William of Normandy landed on the south coast of England with a large invasion force. Harold was forced to march his tired army south to meet this new threat. The two armies met at Hastings on October 14, 1066. In a closely fought battle, William emerged victorious, and Harold was killed.
William's victory at Hastings did not immediately give him control of all England. He faced resistance in various parts of the country and spent the next few years consolidating his rule. However, by 1070, his position was secure, and he began the process of transforming England into a Norman kingdom.
The Norman Conquest brought significant changes to England. At the top levels of society, the Anglo-Saxon nobility was largely replaced by Norman lords. William granted large estates to his followers, creating a new feudal aristocracy. Many Anglo-Saxon landowners lost their property or saw it significantly reduced.
The church also saw major changes, with most English bishops and abbots replaced by Norman appointees. This led to a closer alignment of the English church with continental practices and a program of church building that would transform the English landscape.
In terms of governance, William maintained many of the institutions of the late Anglo-Saxon state, including the system of shires and the role of sheriffs. However, he also introduced new elements, most notably the feudal system of land tenure. He also ordered a comprehensive survey of his new kingdom, recorded in the Domesday Book of 1086, which provides an invaluable snapshot of England at the end of the Anglo-Saxon period.
Perhaps the most significant long-term impact of the Norman Conquest was linguistic. The Norman rulers spoke French, which became the language of the royal court and the nobility. Over time, this led to a significant influx of French words into English, fundamentally changing the character of the language.
Despite these changes, much of the Anglo-Saxon legacy endured. The basic structures of local government, the system of common law, and many aspects of everyday life remained largely unchanged. The English language, though heavily influenced by French, survived and eventually re-emerged as the dominant language of the country.
In many ways, the Norman Conquest can be seen as the final chapter in the story of Anglo-Saxon England. It brought to an end the line of Anglo-Saxon kings that had ruled England for over two centuries. However, it also marked the beginning of a new phase in English history, one that would build upon the foundations laid during the Anglo-Saxon period.
Conclusion
The story of the Anglo-Saxons is, in many ways, the story of how England came to be. Over the course of nearly seven centuries, from the fall of Roman Britain to the Norman Conquest, these Germanic settlers transformed the island of Britain into the recognizable beginnings of England.
When the Anglo-Saxons first arrived in the 5th century, they found a land still bearing the imprint of four centuries of Roman rule. By the time of the Norman Conquest in 1066, they had created something entirely new: a unified kingdom with its own language, laws, and cultural identity.
The legacy of the Anglo-Saxons is deeply embedded in modern England. The English language, despite centuries of influence from French and other languages, remains at its core a Germanic tongue derived from Old English. The country's administrative divisions into counties (derived from the Anglo-Saxon shires) and the basis of its common law system both have their roots in the Anglo-Saxon period.
Even more fundamentally, the Anglo-Saxons laid the foundations for the idea of England itself. Through their gradual unification of various kingdoms, they created the concept of a single English nation, distinct from its Celtic neighbors in Wales and Scotland.
The Anglo-Saxon period was one of constant change and adaptation. From pagan settlers to Christian kings, from warring kingdoms to a unified state, from victims of Viking raids to architects of a sophisticated system of governance, the Anglo-Saxons demonstrated remarkable resilience and creativity.
Their story is not just one of kings and battles, though these play an important part. It's also a story of cultural synthesis, as Germanic traditions merged with Celtic and Roman influences to create something new. It's a story of religious transformation, as the conversion to Christianity brought new ideas and institutions. And it's a story of political and social development, as the rudimentary kingdoms of the early Anglo-Saxon period evolved into the complex state that William the Conqueror inherited in 1066.
The Norman Conquest brought significant changes to England, but it did not erase the Anglo-Saxon legacy. Instead, it added another layer to the rich tapestry of English history. The England that emerged in the centuries after 1066 was neither purely Anglo-Saxon nor purely Norman, but a unique blend of both, built on foundations laid during the Anglo-Saxon period.
In studying the Anglo-Saxons, we gain insight not just into a fascinating period of history, but into the origins of many aspects of modern England. Their story reminds us that nations and cultures are not static entities, but the product of centuries of change, conflict, and adaptation.
The Anglo-Saxons may have ruled England for the last time in 1066, but their influence continues to shape the country to this day. In the words they spoke, the laws they created, the boundaries they drew, and the sense of nationhood they fostered, the Anglo-Saxons left an indelible mark on England. Their legacy serves as a testament to the enduring impact that this period of history has had on the development of one of the world's most influential nations.