The Better Angels of Our Nature

Introduction

Steven Pinker's "The Better Angels of Our Nature" presents a provocative and counterintuitive thesis: despite popular perception, violence has actually been declining throughout human history. This comprehensive work examines the various forms of violence - from war and genocide to domestic abuse and animal cruelty - and argues that we are living in the most peaceful era ever known to our species.

Pinker, a renowned cognitive psychologist and linguist, draws on a vast array of historical data, psychological research, and evolutionary theory to support his argument. He explores the psychological and societal forces that drive violence, as well as the "better angels" of our nature that promote peace and cooperation.

The book takes readers on a journey through human history, from our violent prehistoric past to the relatively peaceful present. Along the way, Pinker identifies six major trends that have contributed to the decline of violence:

1. The Pacification Process
2. The Civilizing Process
3. The Humanitarian Revolution
4. The Long Peace
5. The New Peace
6. The Rights Revolutions

While acknowledging that violence still exists and that progress is not inevitable, Pinker makes a compelling case that the arc of history bends toward peace. His optimistic view challenges us to recognize the progress we've made and to continue working towards a less violent world.

Our Capacity for Violence

Before delving into the decline of violence, Pinker first examines our innate capacity for aggression and cruelty. He argues that all humans have the potential for violence, which has been built into our genes as a crude way of getting what we want. This violent tendency can be seen even in young children and persists into adulthood.

Pinker identifies five primary motivators behind our propensity for violence, which he calls our "inner demons":

1. Predation
2. Dominance
3. Revenge
4. Sadism
5. Ideology

Predation: Violence as a Means to an End

Predation refers to the use of violence as a simple, pragmatic way to obtain resources or achieve goals. From an evolutionary perspective, organisms that were willing to use force often had an advantage in securing food, territory, or mates. This instrumental violence is deeply rooted in our nature.

However, Pinker points out that violence is also a risky strategy. Even if an organism wins a violent confrontation, it may suffer injuries that reduce its long-term chances of survival and reproduction. As a result, humans and other animals tend to use violence selectively, weighing the potential benefits against the risks.

Dominance: Violence to Establish Social Hierarchy

The second motivator for violence is the desire for dominance. In many social species, including humans, individuals compete for status within a hierarchy. This hierarchy often determines access to resources and mates, with those at the top enjoying the greatest benefits.

Pinker explains that in our evolutionary past, males in particular were incentivized to use violence not only to secure immediate resources but also to gain higher status and position in the social hierarchy. This tendency can still be seen in modern humans, with men generally placing a higher value on prestige and status than women do.

However, Pinker also notes an important shift that occurred with the establishment of hunter-gatherer tribes. Females became less concerned with being impregnated by the dominant male and more interested in males who were loyal and could provide for their families. This development led to the evolution of traits like generosity and loyalty, which have been crucial to our success as a species.

Revenge: The Lingering Desire for Retribution

The desire for revenge is a powerful and nearly universal motivator of violence. Pinker explains that revenge doesn't just refer to immediate retaliation, but also to the human tendency to hold grudges and seek retribution over the long term. This desire for vengeance is deeply ingrained in cultures worldwide and is a major factor in many homicides.

Interestingly, Pinker notes that taking revenge can create a pleasurable response in the brain, similar to that caused by cocaine or chocolate. This neurological reward may help explain why the desire for revenge is so persistent and widespread.

From an evolutionary standpoint, Pinker suggests that our desire for revenge may have developed as a deterrent. If potential aggressors know that revenge is likely, they may be less inclined to attack in the first place. Additionally, our sense of revenge is often tied to our moral understanding of reciprocity – the idea that both good and bad actions should be paid back in kind.

Sadism: The Perplexing Pleasure in Others' Pain

Sadism – the deliberate infliction of pain for personal enjoyment – is a rare but disturbing motivator for violence. Pinker describes it as an "acquired taste" that, while uncommon in its pure form today, was more prevalent in the past. He cites examples from ancient Rome and medieval times, where public torture and execution were forms of entertainment.

Pinker speculates that sadism may have evolved as an instinct designed to activate only in extremely violent conditions. In such brutal environments, a sadistic instinct could potentially aid survival. However, he emphasizes that this phenomenon is fortunately rare in modern society.

Ideology: Violence in the Name of a Greater Good

The final motivator for violence that Pinker discusses is ideology – shared beliefs that some greater good is so important that it justifies unlimited violence. Unlike individual predation, ideological violence is driven by group dynamics and the desire to create a better world, often with catastrophic results.

Pinker identifies several human traits that make us susceptible to violent ideologies:

• The tendency to separate people into "ingroups" and "outgroups"
• Polarization, where group ideas become more extreme over time
• Groupthink, where members are reluctant to challenge the group's ideas
• The desire for social conformity

These traits can allow dangerous ideologies to take hold and spread, leading to some of history's worst atrocities, such as the Holocaust and Stalin's purges.

The Better Angels of Our Nature

While our capacity for violence is undeniable, Pinker argues that we also possess qualities that incline us towards peace and cooperation. He identifies four "better angels" that can counteract our violent impulses:

1. Empathy
2. Self-control
3. Moral sense
4. Reason

Empathy: The Foundation of Altruism

Empathy, our ability to understand and share the feelings of others, is a crucial factor in reducing violence. Pinker explains that empathy evolved initially to encourage care for kin, especially offspring. This is why we tend to feel more empathetic towards creatures with features similar to human babies.

Over time, empathy expanded to help us develop reciprocal and altruistic relationships with non-relatives, allowing for mutually beneficial exchanges. Pinker suggests that humans can learn to extend their empathy to broader groups of people, potentially reducing intergroup violence.

However, Pinker also notes a potential downside to empathy: it can sometimes lead to unfairness when our empathetic response to an individual overrides more rational considerations of overall welfare.

Self-Control: Resisting Violent Impulses

Self-control, or willpower, is our ability to resist immediate impulses in favor of long-term goals. Pinker explains that this capacity is rooted in the prefrontal cortex, the part of the brain responsible for complex decision-making and rational thinking.

Research indicates that individuals with greater self-control are less likely to engage in violent behavior. Encouragingly, Pinker notes that willpower can be strengthened through practice. He suggests that as societies have outlawed various forms of violence, citizens have had to learn to control their aggressive impulses, potentially leading to a general increase in self-control.

Pinker also points out that factors like nutrition can affect our capacity for self-control. As global nutrition improves, he speculates that this could contribute to a further decline in violence.

Moral Sense: The Complex Role of Ethics in Violence

Our sense of morality plays a dual role in relation to violence. On one hand, moral beliefs have been used to justify violence against certain groups throughout history. On the other hand, moral progress has led to significant reductions in violence, such as the abolition of slavery and the push for racial equality.

Pinker identifies four main themes around which much of our moral behavior revolves:

1. Communal sharing
2. Authority ranking
3. Equality matching
4. Market pricing

Each of these themes can either promote or discourage violence depending on how they're applied. For example, communal sharing can foster cooperation within a group but also lead to the persecution of outsiders.

Pinker argues that as societies have become more interconnected and ideas have spread more freely, the positive aspects of these moral themes have increasingly outweighed the negative ones, contributing to the overall decline in violence.

Reason: The Power of Rational Thought

The final "better angel" Pinker discusses is reason – our capacity for logical thought and problem-solving. While reason can be used to plan violence, Pinker argues that it more often leads us towards peace.

This is because reason develops in creatures that value their own life and welfare. As a result, they're more likely to use reason to pursue a peaceful world rather than a violent one. Reason can help debunk violent superstitions, encourage impartial thinking, and allow us to see problems from multiple perspectives.

Encouragingly, Pinker presents evidence that our capacity for reason is actually increasing over time. He cites the Flynn Effect, which shows that IQ scores have been rising by an average of three points per decade. This increase is particularly evident in abstract reasoning, which is essential for seeing things from others' perspectives.

Pinker suggests that this improvement in reasoning ability may be contributing to the overall decline in violence, as research indicates that better reasoners tend to be less violent and more cooperative.

Historical Trends in the Decline of Violence

Having examined the psychological forces that influence our capacity for both violence and peace, Pinker turns to the historical evidence for the decline of violence. He identifies six major trends that have contributed to this decline:

1. The Pacification Process
2. The Civilizing Process
3. The Humanitarian Revolution
4. The Long Peace
5. The New Peace
6. The Rights Revolutions

The Pacification Process

The pacification process began about 5,000 years ago with the transition from hunter-gatherer societies to agricultural states. Contrary to the romantic notion of peaceful primitive tribes, Pinker presents evidence that hunter-gatherer societies were actually quite violent. He estimates that approximately 15% of deaths in these societies were due to violence, compared to just 1% in state societies.

The rise of agricultural states with formal governments brought a reduction in violence because these states monopolized the use of force. While early states were often brutal to their own citizens and engaged in warfare with other states, they had an interest in reducing violence within their borders because conflict reduced productivity and tax revenue.

Over time, Pinker argues, governments have become increasingly concerned with reducing violence for the common good, though state-on-state violence remains a significant issue in many parts of the world.

The Civilizing Process

The civilizing process, which began in 15th-century Western Europe and continues to the present day, was driven by two main forces:

1. The increase in the size and strength of European states
2. The growth of trade networks

In the Middle Ages, Europe was divided into thousands of small, violent fiefdoms. As some rulers gained power and consolidated these territories, they became interested in reducing conflicts among their subjects to increase overall productivity. This led to the punishment of violence and the establishment of more peaceful norms.

At the same time, advances in technology and infrastructure made trade easier and more profitable. This provided a non-violent way to gain wealth and discouraged violence because trading partners are more valuable alive than dead.

Pinker argues that these forces gradually led to a more "civilized" society with lower levels of interpersonal violence.

The Humanitarian Revolution

The humanitarian revolution, which began in the 17th and 18th centuries, was characterized by a new philosophy that emphasized the value of human life and happiness. This led to significant reductions in various forms of institutionalized violence:

• The decline of superstition-based killings, such as witch hunts
• Increased religious tolerance
• The abolition of slavery
• More humane treatment of criminals, including the reduction of torture and capital punishment

Pinker attributes this shift largely to the rise of humanism, a philosophy that values human life and happiness above all else and uses reason and empirical evidence to design institutions. He suggests that the invention of the printing press played a crucial role in spreading these ideas and fostering empathy by allowing people to learn about others' perspectives.

The Long Peace

The "Long Peace" refers to the period from the end of World War II to the present day, during which there has been a dramatic decrease in warfare, especially between major powers. Pinker presents statistics showing that the number of war-related deaths per capita has dropped significantly during this period.

This trend is actually part of a longer historical decline in warfare among great powers. Pinker notes that in the 16th and 17th centuries, major powers were at war with each other about 85% of the time. By the latter half of the 20th century, they were not fighting each other at all.

Pinker attributes this decline to several factors:

• The consolidation of states, reducing the number of potential combatants
• The increasing profitability of trade compared to war
• The separation of church and state, reducing religious motivations for war
• The influence of Enlightenment philosophy, which emphasized reason and human well-being over glory in battle

The New Peace

The "New Peace" refers to the period following the end of the Cold War, from 1991 to the present. During this time, Pinker argues that there have been further reductions in various forms of organized violence:

• A decline in civil wars and interstate conflicts
• Fewer genocides and mass killings
• A reduction in terrorism, despite popular perceptions to the contrary

Pinker attributes these declines to several factors:

• The end of Cold War proxy conflicts
• The spread of democracy, which tends to reduce internal violence
• International peacekeeping efforts
• The decline of violent ideologies that motivated past atrocities

While acknowledging that these forms of violence still occur, Pinker presents data showing that they have become less frequent and less deadly on a per-capita basis.

The Rights Revolutions

The final trend Pinker identifies is the series of rights revolutions that began in the 1950s and 1960s and continue to the present day. These movements have led to decreased violence against various marginalized groups:

• The civil rights movement reduced racial discrimination and violence
• The women's rights movement decreased domestic violence and sexual assault
• Children's rights movements led to reductions in child abuse and corporal punishment
• The gay rights movement has reduced violence against LGBTQ+ individuals
• Animal rights movements have curbed some forms of animal cruelty

Pinker sees these revolutions as a continuation of the humanitarian revolution, extending the circle of moral concern to encompass more and more groups. He presents evidence showing significant declines in violence against these groups in many parts of the world, though he acknowledges that progress has been uneven and that serious problems persist in many areas.

The Psychology of the Decline of Violence

Having established the historical trends, Pinker explores the psychological mechanisms that have enabled this decline in violence. He argues that the six historical trends have worked by enhancing the influence of our "better angels" while restraining our "inner demons."

Empathy and the Expanding Circle of Concern

The rights revolutions, in particular, have been driven by an expansion of empathy. As people have been exposed to the perspectives and experiences of different groups through literature, media, and personal interactions, they've become more able to empathize with those unlike themselves. This expanded empathy has made it harder to justify violence against these groups.

Pinker also discusses the role of "cosmopolitanism" – the idea that we should extend our moral concern to all of humanity, not just our immediate group. He argues that increased global interconnectedness and the spread of universalist philosophies have promoted this more expansive view.

Self-Control and the Civilizing Process

The civilizing process has both required and promoted greater self-control. As societies became more complex and interdependent, individuals had to learn to control their impulses and conform to social norms. This process was reinforced by state punishment of violence and the increasing benefits of peaceful cooperation.

Pinker suggests that this historical process may have actually changed human psychology over time, leading to greater average capacity for self-control. He also notes that improvements in nutrition and education may have contributed to better impulse control at a population level.

Moral Progress and Changing Norms

The humanitarian revolution and the rights revolutions represent significant shifts in moral norms. Pinker argues that these changes were driven by the application of reason to moral questions, leading to more universal and impartial ethical principles.

He discusses how practices that were once considered normal or even virtuous – such as slavery, torture, or animal cruelty – came to be seen as morally abhorrent. This shift in moral norms has made many forms of violence not just illegal but socially unacceptable.

Reason and the Decline of Superstition

The increasing influence of reason and scientific thinking has contributed to the decline of violence in several ways:

1. Debunking superstitions that led to violence (e.g., witch hunts)
2. Promoting more effective and humane solutions to social problems
3. Encouraging people to take more impartial, less emotional views of conflicts

Pinker argues that the Flynn effect – the observed increase in IQ scores over time – may reflect a general increase in the capacity for abstract and logical thinking. This improved reasoning ability could be contributing to the overall decline in violence.

Challenges to the Thesis

Pinker acknowledges that his thesis – that violence has declined dramatically over human history – is counterintuitive and controversial. He addresses several common objections and challenges to his argument:

The 20th Century and the World Wars

One of the most significant challenges to Pinker's thesis is the immense violence of the 20th century, particularly the two World Wars. Pinker doesn't downplay the horror of these conflicts but argues that they need to be viewed in the context of growing global population and compared to the scale of violence in earlier periods.

When adjusted for population size, Pinker contends that even the World Wars don't reverse the long-term downward trend in violence. He also points out that the reaction to these wars – the establishment of international institutions and norms against conquest – has contributed to the subsequent "Long Peace."

Nuclear Weapons and the Threat of Annihilation

The development of nuclear weapons poses a unique challenge to Pinker's thesis, as it introduces the possibility of human extinction through violence. Pinker acknowledges this threat but argues that the very destructiveness of nuclear weapons has served as a powerful deterrent to their use.

He discusses the concept of the "nuclear peace" – the idea that the threat of mutual assured destruction has prevented direct conflict between nuclear powers. While not dismissing the dangers of nuclear proliferation, Pinker suggests that the existence of nuclear weapons may have paradoxically contributed to the decline in interstate warfare.

Terrorism and New Forms of Violence

Pinker addresses the concern that new forms of violence, particularly terrorism, might be reversing the trend of declining violence. He presents data showing that, contrary to popular perception, terrorism has not been increasing globally (with some regional exceptions). He argues that the psychological impact of terrorism often outweighs its actual destructiveness.

However, Pinker does acknowledge the potential for new technologies to enable novel forms of violence. He discusses the challenges posed by bioterrorism, cyberattacks, and other emerging threats, while maintaining that these risks don't negate the overall historical trend.

Environmental Destruction and Structural Violence

Some critics argue that Pinker's focus on direct violence ignores other forms of harm, such as environmental destruction or structural inequalities. Pinker acknowledges the seriousness of these issues but argues that they are conceptually distinct from violence as he defines it.

He contends that conflating all forms of harm under the label of "violence" can lead to confused thinking and ineffective solutions. However, he does note that many of the same psychological and social forces that have reduced direct violence may also be helpful in addressing these other challenges.

Implications and Future Prospects

In the final sections of the book, Pinker explores the implications of his thesis and considers the prospects for future reductions in violence.

The Importance of Institutions

Pinker emphasizes the crucial role of institutions in reducing violence. He argues that effective governments, international organizations, and systems of law have been key to restraining violent impulses and promoting peaceful cooperation. He warns against taking these institutions for granted and stresses the need to maintain and improve them.

The Role of Culture and Education

Cultural changes have been central to the decline of violence, according to Pinker. He discusses the importance of promoting values like human rights, scientific rationality, and cosmopolitanism. Education plays a vital role in this process, both by improving cognitive skills and by exposing people to diverse perspectives.

Technology: Promise and Peril

Pinker sees technology as a double-edged sword when it comes to violence. On one hand, technological progress has often led to more efficient and destructive weapons. On the other hand, it has also enabled better communication, increased productivity, and improved quality of life – all factors that tend to reduce violence.

Looking to the future, Pinker acknowledges the potential dangers of emerging technologies but also sees promise in innovations that could further reduce the incentives for violence.

The Continuing Importance of Reason

Throughout the book, Pinker emphasizes the power of reason in driving moral progress and reducing violence. He argues that we should continue to apply rational analysis to moral and social issues, challenging traditional practices and beliefs when they don't stand up to scrutiny.

At the same time, he cautions against utopian thinking, noting that attempts to create perfect societies have often led to violence. Instead, he advocates for a pragmatic approach focused on incremental improvements.

Vigilance and Optimism

Pinker concludes with a call for both vigilance and optimism. He argues that the decline of violence is not inevitable or irreversible – it requires ongoing effort to maintain and extend the progress that has been made.

However, he also contends that recognizing how far we've come can inspire us to continue working towards a less violent world. Understanding the psychological and social forces that have reduced violence in the past can help us design more effective strategies for the future.

Conclusion

"The Better Angels of Our Nature" presents a sweeping and provocative argument about the trajectory of human violence. Steven Pinker marshals an impressive array of evidence to support his thesis that violence has declined dramatically over the course of human history.

From the pacification process that began with the first states to the rights revolutions of recent decades, Pinker traces a series of historical trends that have gradually made the world less violent. He explores the psychological mechanisms behind these changes, showing how our "better angels" of empathy, self-control, moral sense, and reason have increasingly prevailed over our violent impulses.

While acknowledging the very real violence and suffering that still exist in the world, Pinker argues that recognizing our progress is important. It challenges fatalistic views about human nature and violence, and it provides hope that further reductions in violence are possible.

The book's thesis remains controversial, and Pinker's interpretations of historical data and current trends have been challenged by other scholars. However, even critics generally acknowledge the value of his comprehensive approach to the subject and the importance of the questions he raises.

"The Better Angels of Our Nature" is not just a historical account or a psychological study – it's also a philosophical argument about human progress and the power of reason. Pinker makes a case for Enlightenment values of science, humanism, and human rights as forces for reducing violence and improving the human condition.

In the end, Pinker's work invites us to think deeply about violence, its causes, and its potential solutions. It challenges us to recognize the progress we've made while redoubling our efforts to create a more peaceful world. Whether one fully accepts Pinker's thesis or not, "The Better Angels of Our Nature" provides a thought-provoking and optimistic perspective on one of humanity's most persistent challenges.