The Black Jacobins Summary

To maintain the system of wealth in San Domingo, some of the richest men in the world subjected millions to inhumane suffering. But what happens when those oppressed rise with the belief in liberty and equality?

1. The Richest Colony Built on Brutality

San Domingo was one of the wealthiest colonies in the late eighteenth century, producing crops like sugar and coffee that enriched France immensely. Its economic success, however, was built entirely on the labor of enslaved Africans. With over 500,000 slaves by the late 1700s, San Domingo was a stark example of colonial exploitation.

The enslaved population endured extreme violence and harsh conditions. Even though the French government had rules about their treatment, colonists ignored these rules and frequently resorted to severe punishments, including whippings and even filling enslaved individuals with gunpowder as execution. This system of dehumanizing oppression enabled the colony’s vast agricultural productivity.

This wealth disparity laid the ground for tensions. The colony had a veneer of prosperity, but this masked the sheer brutality underpinning it. This imbalance became one of the main reasons why the oppressed population sought change.

Examples

• San Domingo’s agriculture led to France becoming dominant in the global coffee and sugar trade.
• Slaves were routinely worked under grueling conditions from sunrise to sunset without respite.
• Violent acts, like summarily punishing enslaved individuals for minor offenses, were commonplace.

2. A Fragmented Free Society

The society in San Domingo was highly divided. At the top were French government officials and plantation owners, followed by smaller landowners, tradesmen, and a mixed-race population. Though the colony had wealth, these divisions created unending friction.

The “big whites,” or plantation owners, were the wealthiest, yet they resented the officials who controlled governance. Below them, “small whites” sought power but often found their influence limited. Racial discrimination further complicated relationships, as mixed-race people were often denied rights despite their prosperity. This layer of inequality bred resentment among different groups.

These fragmented dynamics ensured that grievances existed across all levels of society. Ultimately, this paved the way for various factions to push for change, albeit in competing directions.

Examples

• Mixed-race individuals, despite wealth, were legally barred from certain societal positions.
• Poor whites came to San Domingo believing their skin color would elevate their status and position over the enslaved.
• Europeans of all classes exploited widespread racial tension for personal gain.

3. Persistent Slave Resistance

Contrary to common misconceptions, enslaved people continuously resisted their dehumanizing conditions. Their resistance, ranging from suicide to escape, highlighted their determination to oppose slavery.

Runaway slaves, often called maroons, formed self-sufficient communities in the mountains, attacking colonists when opportunities arose. Others revolted at various stages, even fighting during their capture in Africa or resisting onboard slave ships. However, without leadership or unified organization, large-scale revolts failed to materialize.

This unyielding resistance becomes a testament to the human spirit and planted the seeds for collective action. However, the slaves needed both a strategic leader and a moment of opportunity to overthrow the system.

Examples

• Instances of runaway maroon communities included armed raids on settlements.
• Rebellious slaves disrupted work on plantations by setting fires to crops.
• Many preferred freedom through suicide over enduring the torment of enslavement.

4. The French Revolution Ignites a Fire

The ideals of the French Revolution—liberty, equality, and fraternity—resonated far beyond France. When these principles reached San Domingo, they acted as a catalyst, particularly among the oppressed classes.

Wealthy colonists initially championed the French Revolution to assert their economic rights against French bureaucracy. However, its focus on universal equality spread rapidly, inspiring hope among both the mixed-race population and the enslaved masses. The mixed-race rebellion led by Ogé in 1790 was one of the first such efforts to test how far France’s promises of equality would extend.

Although Ogé’s rebellion failed, his actions sent a loud message. Soon, slaves, inspired by the Revolution’s commitment to liberty, began organizing an uprising centered around these ideals.

Examples

• Mixed-race leader Ogé’s rebellion ended in his capture and torturous death.
• The French Revolution raised questions about equality for all, including slaves.
• Revolutionary ideas spread via soldiers and settlers traveling between France and San Domingo.

5. Toussaint L’Ouverture: A Remarkable Leader Emerges

The rebellious slaves found their leader in Toussaint L’Ouverture, a former slave with extraordinary leadership abilities. Educated and strategic, Toussaint was different. He combined intellect with deep determination, making him the linchpin of the rebellion.

Born into a relatively privileged enslaved family, Toussaint gained skills in administration and governance. His exposure to readings on historical leaders, such as Julius Caesar, sharpened his strategic mind. Unlike many others, he saw the rebellion as a long-term vision of abolition rather than vengeance.

Toussaint’s ability to inspire, organize, and lead the enslaved population transformed the rebellion into an effective military campaign. His leadership ensured that freedom, once won, would not easily be taken back.

Examples

• Toussaint read extensively about military strategies, studying leaders like Caesar.
• He began as a physician during the revolt but quickly assumed military command.
• His well-drilled army outperformed highly trained European troops in battle.

6. A Ruthless Rebellion

The uprising in 1791 was a mixture of desperation and hope. Enslaved people overran plantations, destroying any symbols of oppression. The brutality they experienced fueled their rage, resulting in mutual violence between insurgents and colonists.

Initially, the rebellion lacked discipline and modern weaponry, leaving many fighters vulnerable. Toussaint’s leadership marked a turning point. He reorganized the rebel forces, training them into a formidable army. His strategic military campaigns ensured the continued success of the rebellion.

His disciplined approach turned the tide of the conflict, enabling the rebels to withstand repeated attacks, demonstrating their resolve.

Examples

• The rebellion launched in July 1791, swiftly targeting colonial estates.
• Fighters began forming guerilla-style units in devastated plantation regions.
• Toussaint’s troops rebuilt battalions and defeated forces better equipped than theirs.

7. The Global Stakes of San Domingo

Toussaint’s alliance with European factions was a pragmatic move. Early in the rebellion, he sided with Spain to weaken the French. However, once France abolished slavery in 1794, he switched allegiance. The fragile alliances highlighted the competing interests of global powers.

Toussaint’s ultimate priority remained abolition, and he distrusted European nations, knowing they prioritized profit. His calculated decisions often baffled European leaders. However, his unwavering goal was to secure liberty for the people of San Domingo, even at the cost of switching loyalties.

Such strategies were groundbreaking—Toussaint not only defeated French governors but also held back global empires like Britain.

Examples

• Toussaint openly allied with Spain in the rebellion’s early years.
• His forces helped defeat British troops in 1796, inflicting heavy casualties.
• Repeated negotiations with France exposed Toussaint’s distrust of imperial ambitions.

8. Toussaint’s Vision for San Domingo

Once slavery was abolished, Toussaint turned his efforts towards rebuilding. San Domingo, ravaged by years of rebellion, needed everything—from administrative reform to agricultural revival. Toussaint’s initiatives set the stage for Haiti’s future independence.

He compelled former slaves to return to work on plantations for wages to revive the economy. Though controversial, it was one of the few options to rebuild agricultural productivity. Toussaint also abolished unnecessary tariffs to support free trade while ensuring education spread throughout the island.

While these policies aimed to create a balanced society, divisions and dissatisfaction persisted. Many, especially former slaves, questioned Toussaint’s reliance on former colonists.

Examples

• New trade policies reinvigorated commerce after years of neglect.
• Toussaint enforced structured agricultural contracts to stabilize production.
• Schools were established to educate young Haitians, fostering a literate population.

9. Haiti’s Hard-Won Independence

After Toussaint’s arrest in 1802, the rebellion reignited against French forces. The memory of Toussaint, coupled with Napoleon’s attempts to revive slavery, fueled unity among the Haitian population.

Led by Dessalines, this second wave of rebellion removed France’s presence from the island entirely. The victory marked Haiti’s independence in 1804, making it the first nation founded by formerly enslaved people. However, independence came with bloodshed—Dessalines ordered the massacre of San Domingo’s remaining white population.

Haiti’s foundation was built on both freedom and retribution, representing the complexities of liberation movements.

Examples

• Dessalines declared Haiti independent, breaking ties with France.
• The remaining French forces were driven away, no longer able to enforce slavery.
• Haiti signifies the first successful slave-led rebellion in history.

Takeaways

1. Understand that revolutions stem from oppression and the desire for liberty—not just chaos.
2. To truly grasp historical events, examine perspectives from all sides involved.
3. Powerful ideals, like liberty and equality, can unify and inspire even the most oppressed people to achieve freedom.