The End of the Myth Summary

“What happens when the myth of expansion ends? Does a nation look inward for growth, or do its darker impulses rise to the surface?”

1. The Link Between Prosperity and Expansion

From America’s inception, the idea of endless expansion was strongly tied to its prosperity. Early settlers saw the vast lands as both opportunity and promise.

As British settlers spread across the eastern United States, they claimed land under the notion that prosperity depended on growth. For instance, James Madison believed this expansion would let diverse communities form and coexist peacefully. Madison envisioned a nation where diversity and space would prevent societal conflicts by allowing like-minded groups to spread out.

Native American lands were an inevitable target, despite the Royal Proclamation of 1763 attempting to protect them. By 1776, independence from Britain allowed unfettered expansion, with little regard for Native rights. This attitude reinforced the belief that new land equaled stability and opportunity.

Examples

• Madison argued that expansion would mitigate cultural tensions among Americans.
• The 1763 Proclamation initially designated vast western lands for Native Americans but was ignored post-independence.
• Expansionism fueled the settlers’ desire to claim and develop the supposedly “unused” land.

2. Andrew Jackson’s Small Government Vision

Andrew Jackson embodied the frontiersman spirit and infused it into his presidency, emphasizing minimal government interference and individual freedoms.

Jackson’s policies prioritized settlers’ rights over Native American concerns. His governance saw large-scale Indian removal while maintaining strong popularity among Southern voters who sought autonomy from federal decisions around slavery. To Jackson, government oversight was unwanted unless it expanded opportunities for settlers.

Jackson’s personal ethos often reflected his policies. Stories recount him dismissing government control, exemplified by his defiant response when stopped in Indian territory, showcasing his “individual freedoms first” mindset. Republicans in his era heavily supported his limited-government ideals, while Southern politicians championed his decisions.

Examples

• Jackson led the infamous “Trail of Tears,” displacing thousands of Native Americans.
• Southern states embraced his hands-off governance, particularly for slavery freedom.
• Jackson's unwillingness to recognize Indian territorial borders spurred conflict with federal officials.

3. War as a “Safety Valve”

War served as a pressure release for internal American tensions, redirecting fragmented focus toward military objectives and expansion.

Starting with the Mexican-American War in 1846, the military became a tool for both territorial conquest and unity. By allowing Americans to rally around the concept of national pride, war acted as what journalists of the age called a “safety valve.” These conquests often pushed further westward, but later shifted to ideological expansions such as promoting Western values abroad.

Wars unified factions within America, even if temporarily. For Southern states still seeking Confederate “lost cause” retribution, the military became their platform. They carried Confederate battle flags into wars like the Spanish-American conflict, channeling their efforts against foreign peoples of color rather than domestic unrest.

Examples

• The Mexican-American War expanded US territory, adding land like California and Arizona.
• Southern soldiers used wars as avenues to reassert Confederate sentiments.
• The term “safety valve” became a metaphor for expansion alleviating domestic societal tensions.

4. The Flawed Nature of the Frontier Myth

Historian Frederick Jackson Turner’s romanticized “Frontier Thesis” ignored key facts to prop up an unrealistic interpretation of American expansion.

Turner theorized that settlers alone drove expansion, creating self-reliant communities incorporated into a fair democratic system. This was largely untrue; government intervention played a primary role in blazing trails, managing land, and clearing obstacles like Native populations. Turner notably shifted focus from actual geography to an ideology of “idealistic expansion,” paving the way for capitalist aspirations.

While Turner's ideas were embraced widely, particularly by industrial leaders, they masked systemic displacement and exploitation that often underpinned progress. They also falsely suggested that America’s growth could persist indefinitely, even when physical expansion had reached an end.

Examples

• Settler actions were heavily supported by federal systems like land surveys and rail infrastructure.
• Turner elevated the rugged individual as central to democracy, misrepresenting the government’s foundational role.
• His call for public-policy-based frontiers inspired the likes of industrialists to pursue corporate expansion.

5. Social Democracy’s Moment of Promise

America’s flirtation with social democracy intensified during the Great Depression, redefining how government involved itself in citizens’ welfare.

Programs like Roosevelt’s New Deal offered safety nets for struggling Americans, with initiatives for job creation, Social Security, and infrastructure expansion. The Depression marked a turning point as the idea of endless territorial growth faded, forcing leaders to look inward at sustainable policies for thriving communities. The government’s proactive involvement was viewed as a necessity.

However, historical hesitations remained. For example, prior feasible initiatives emphasizing equality, like the Freedmen’s Bureau, often collapsed amid opposition. Roosevelt’s policies succeeded where others failed largely due to the pressing circumstances of the time.

Examples

• Social initiatives like crop planting and augmenting national parks addressed critical employment and environmental needs.
• Roosevelt’s programs mirrored and expanded upon previous government efforts like the Freedmen’s Bureau.
• Economist Stuart Chase described the New Deal as fighting “economic battles at home.”

6. Vietnam and the Decline of National Unity

The Vietnam War broke a pattern. Instead of uniting Americans, it revealed deep social divides and amplified internal unrest.

When the war’s failure became evident, it ignited widespread protests nationwide, exacerbating tensions. Civil rights marches, anti-war sit-ins, and societal rifts related to race and class erupted. Success in war once served as validation for continued internal policy ambitions, but Vietnam severely damaged public trust in the government.

This volatile post-war period paved the way for leaders like Nixon, who capitalized on America’s frayed dynamics by tapping into wedge issues like crime and patriotism. Later, Reagan layered individualism over these same divides, rejecting large-scale programs and shifting the focus back to private responsibility.

Examples

• Civil rights protesters and anti-war activists clashed with aggressive law enforcement during the 1960s unrest.
• Images of atrocities committed in Vietnam further alienated Americans from military campaigns.
• Nixon’s rise reflected a political response focused on consolidating conservative values after Vietnam-era controversies.

7. Vigilance and the Southern Border

America’s southern border has consistently been a site of extreme violence and upheaval, with vigilante and systemic abuses shaping its history.

Throughout the 1920s, groups like the Klu Klux Klan weaponized border security for racist purposes. The Border Patrol itself grew synonymous with abuses – from incidents of hanged migrants to shootings. Even in modern times, these patterns fueled political figures capitalizing on border-related fears.

The policies meant to control migration often exacerbate these tensions. The history of border violence holds deeper implications for America’s unresolved ideas about expansion, prosperity, and exclusion.

Examples

• The founding of the Border Patrol in 1924 institutionalized violent anti-migrant practices.
• Reagan’s administration encouraged Latino assimilation while funding tougher security.
• Between 1920 and 1930, Klan-influenced vigilantism accounted for the murders of dozens of Mexicans.

8. NAFTA’s Double-Edged Sword

The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) unintentionally deepened migration issues while aiming to strengthen US-Mexico economic ties.

Under NAFTA, manufacturing shifted south to Mexico, displacing millions of rural families who sought work in the United States. While the agreement was initially praised for potentially modernizing Mexico’s economy, its effects only widened gaps in prosperity. Enhanced border security under Clinton did little to reduce surges in migrants.

This combination of economic policies and migration concerns paved the way for heightened anti-immigrant sentiment. Vigilante groups reappeared, and protests against migrants became more visible in southern US states.

Examples

• Factories displaced farmers across Mexico, leaving many searching for U.S. jobs.
• Border control expanded throughout the 1990s, responding to increased migrant crossings.
• Clinton’s administration saw surges of undocumented people largely escaping economic fallout due to NAFTA.

9. The Death of Expansion with the Iraq War

Interventionist expansion reached its breaking point with the Iraq War, revealing the flawed assumptions underpinning America’s frontier legacy.

The Bush administration’s rhetoric of spreading democracy collided with stark realities: unnecessary violence, racial targeting, torture, and dubious justifications. Mismanagement underscored the inability to sustain “frontier thinking” in modern problems, echoing earlier failures in Vietnam. Both wars dismantled confidence in expanding American values.

Internally, Bush’s failures overlapped with escalating cultural divides, exemplified through anti-immigrant practices and Confederate symbols embedded in vigilante activities. The war’s aftermath cemented the permanent demise of the expansion-driven American myth.

Examples

• The Iraq War highlighted grave missteps, including lies about weapons of mass destruction.
• Images from places like Abu Ghraib tanked global perceptions of US moral leadership.
• Domestic fallout around race and migration paralleled external failures overseas.

Takeaways

1. Approach civil and global conflicts with honesty, learning from historical errors tied to expansionist policies.
2. Support balanced discussions on immigration and border security to build bridges, not barriers.
3. Focus on inward growth initiatives, like public welfare and equality, to promote long-term national unity beyond myths of endless opportunity.