"The End of the Myth" by Greg Grandin explores how the concept of the American frontier has shaped the nation's policies and identity throughout its history. The book argues that the idea of endless expansion and opportunity has been central to American thinking since the country's founding. However, this myth has now come to an end, with significant consequences for modern American politics and society.
Grandin traces how the frontier myth evolved from literal westward expansion to more abstract forms of growth and influence. He examines how it impacted domestic and foreign policy decisions across different eras. Ultimately, he contends that the collapse of this foundational myth helps explain the rise of Trumpism and current political divisions.
This summary will explore the key ideas and historical developments presented in Grandin's book. We'll see how the frontier concept originated, how it adapted over time, and why its demise matters for understanding America today.
The Origins of the Frontier Myth
Early America and Expansion
From the earliest days of British settlement in North America, there was a sense of vast, open space and seemingly limitless land to claim. This perception of boundless territory became intertwined with ideas of prosperity and opportunity.
When the American colonies broke away from British rule, expansion westward quickly became a priority. The young nation's leaders saw growth as essential for stability and success. James Madison, one of the Founding Fathers, believed that expansion would help manage the diversity of the new country's population. He thought that with enough space, different groups could spread out and form their own communities while still being part of one nation.
However, this vision of harmonious expansion ignored some harsh realities. The land being claimed was already inhabited by Native American peoples. Additionally, the institution of slavery complicated ideas of freedom and equality in the expanding nation.
Andrew Jackson and Frontier Ideology
The presidency of Andrew Jackson in the 1830s marked a significant shift in American frontier ideology. Jackson embodied the image of the rugged frontiersman. He championed individual rights and minimal government interference - at least for white settlers.
Jackson's policies prioritized westward expansion and the forcible removal of Native Americans from their lands. His administration oversaw the infamous Trail of Tears, in which thousands of Cherokee people died during a forced relocation.
The Jacksonian era cemented certain ideas that would become central to frontier mythology:
- Individual freedom as paramount
- Distrust of government oversight
- The right of white settlers to claim "unused" land
- Manifest Destiny - the belief that American expansion was divinely ordained
These principles resonated strongly, especially in the Southern states. They laid the groundwork for how many Americans would conceptualize freedom, opportunity, and national identity for generations to come.
The Safety Valve Theory
In the early 1800s, the concept of the frontier as a "safety valve" for social tensions began to take hold. This idea suggested that westward expansion provided an outlet for societal pressures that might otherwise lead to conflict.
The safety valve theory proposed that when people became dissatisfied with their circumstances in the established Eastern regions, they could simply move West to seek new opportunities. This was seen as a way to prevent class conflict, ethnic tensions, and political unrest.
Some even applied this thinking to justify horrific practices like slavery. They argued that the rape of enslaved women by white slave owners acted as a "safety valve" to protect white Southern women.
Most significantly, war came to be viewed as another form of safety valve. Military conflicts could unite a divided nation and provide an outlet for aggression. This thinking would have long-lasting impacts on American foreign policy.
The Evolving Frontier in the 19th Century
Expansion and Military Conflict
As the 19th century progressed, America's physical frontiers continued to expand through various means:
- The Louisiana Purchase of 1803 doubled the size of the United States
- The Mexican-American War of 1846-1848 resulted in the U.S. gaining vast territories in the Southwest
- By 1848, America stretched from the Atlantic to the Pacific
Military conflicts played a crucial role in this expansion. Wars served multiple purposes:
- They directly led to territorial gains
- They united Americans around a common cause, temporarily easing internal divisions
- They provided an outlet for aggression and a way for individuals (especially Southerners after the Civil War) to prove their patriotism
The Spanish-American War of 1898 marked a turning point. With continental expansion largely complete, America began to look beyond its borders for new frontiers of influence.
The Frontier Thesis
In the 1890s, historian Frederick Jackson Turner developed what became known as the Frontier Thesis. This influential idea proposed that the American frontier experience had been crucial in shaping the nation's character and democratic institutions.
Turner argued that as settlers moved westward, they went through a process of "Americanization." They shed their European ways and developed uniquely American traits like self-reliance, individualism, and democratic values. According to this theory, it was the constant presence of the frontier that made American democracy possible.
However, Turner's thesis had significant flaws:
- It ignored the role of government in facilitating westward expansion
- It downplayed the violent displacement of Native Americans
- It glossed over issues of racial and economic inequality
Despite these shortcomings, the Frontier Thesis became hugely influential. It provided a compelling narrative of American exceptionalism just as the physical frontier was closing.
The Closing of the Frontier
By the late 19th century, the U.S. Census Bureau declared that there was no longer a clear frontier line of settlement. This prompted concerns about what would happen to American society without the outlet of westward expansion.
Some, like Turner, proposed that new frontiers could be found in areas like public policy or social reform. Others looked to overseas expansion and imperialism as a way to continue the frontier experience.
The closing of the physical frontier coincided with other major changes:
- Rapid industrialization
- Growing economic inequality
- Increased immigration
- Labor unrest
These factors combined to create new social and political tensions. The myth of the frontier would need to adapt to address these challenges in the 20th century.
The Frontier Myth in the 20th Century
The Progressive Era and New Deal
The early 20th century saw attempts to apply frontier thinking to social reform. Progressive Era reformers sought to tame the "wilderness" of unregulated capitalism and urban poverty. They aimed to extend the promise of opportunity to more Americans through government action.
This approach reached its peak with Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal in the 1930s. Faced with the Great Depression, Roosevelt (who had studied Turner's Frontier Thesis) proposed ambitious social programs as a new kind of frontier. The New Deal included:
- Social Security
- Labor protections
- Infrastructure projects
- Financial regulations
These policies represented an attempt at "inward expansion" - applying frontier ideals of opportunity and renewal to existing American society rather than new territories.
World Wars and the Cold War
The World Wars and subsequent Cold War provided new avenues for frontier thinking in American foreign policy. These conflicts were framed as battles to expand and defend American values globally.
The military once again served as a "safety valve" for domestic tensions, especially racial conflicts. Many saw military service as a path to proving one's Americanness and accessing economic opportunities.
The Space Race of the 1960s offered perhaps the ultimate frontier - outer space. It captured the public imagination and seemed to promise unlimited possibilities for expansion and discovery.
The Vietnam War and Disillusionment
The Vietnam War marked a turning point in America's frontier mythology. Unlike previous conflicts, it did not serve as an effective safety valve for domestic tensions. Instead, it exacerbated them.
The war's failure challenged core assumptions about American power and righteousness. It revealed the dark side of frontier-style expansionism and militarism.
At home, the civil rights movement and other social upheavals forced a reckoning with longstanding inequalities. The frontier myth's promise of equal opportunity for all was increasingly questioned.
Reagan and the Frontier Revival
Ronald Reagan's presidency in the 1980s attempted to revive frontier ideology in a new form. Reagan emphasized:
- Individual freedom over government intervention
- Free market capitalism
- Traditional values
- A strong military stance against communism
This approach appealed to many Americans nostalgic for a simpler time. It combined Jacksonian ideals of small government with Cold War patriotism and social conservatism.
However, Reagan's policies also contributed to growing economic inequality and social divisions. The gap between frontier mythology and reality was widening.
The Southern Border and Immigration
Historical Violence
The U.S.-Mexico border has long been a site of violence and conflict. During the Mexican-American War, American forces committed numerous atrocities against Mexican civilians.
Even after the war, the border region remained lawless and dangerous. In the early 20th century, vigilante groups like the Ku Klux Klan took it upon themselves to "protect" the border through violence against Mexican migrants.
Changing Policies
U.S. immigration policies have fluctuated over time, often in response to economic needs and political pressures:
- The establishment of the Border Patrol in 1924 increased federal presence, but abuses continued
- During World War II, the Bracero Program brought in Mexican workers to fill labor shortages
- Operation Wetback in the 1950s led to mass deportations
- The Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986 under Reagan granted amnesty to millions of undocumented immigrants
Despite changing policies, undocumented immigration continued. Many U.S. businesses relied on this labor force, even as political rhetoric became increasingly anti-immigrant.
NAFTA and Increased Migration
The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) in the 1990s was partly intended to reduce immigration by boosting Mexico's economy. However, it had the opposite effect:
- It displaced millions of Mexican farmers and rural families
- This led to increased migration to the United States
- The Clinton administration responded by further militarizing the border
The combination of economic displacement and heightened border security made crossing more dangerous, but did not significantly reduce immigration.
Post-9/11 and the Rise of Vigilantism
After the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks, anti-immigrant sentiment intensified. The border became increasingly militarized and associated with national security concerns.
This period saw a rise in vigilante groups patrolling the border. Some of these groups had ties to white supremacist ideologies.
The Tea Party movement in the late 2000s incorporated strong anti-immigrant positions into its platform. This set the stage for the nativist rhetoric that would become central to Donald Trump's political rise.
The End of the Frontier Myth
The Iraq War and Disillusionment
The Iraq War, launched in 2003, represented a last attempt to apply frontier-style expansionism to foreign policy. It was framed as a mission to spread democracy and American values.
However, the war quickly became a quagmire. Revelations about false pretenses for the invasion, human rights abuses, and the overall failure to achieve stated objectives deeply damaged America's global standing.
This failure, coming after the mixed results of the Cold War and the ongoing challenges in Afghanistan, effectively ended the idea that America could endlessly expand its influence through military means.
Economic Stagnation and Inequality
The 2008 financial crisis and subsequent Great Recession further undermined the frontier myth's promise of opportunity. Key developments included:
- Stagnant wages for most workers
- Growing wealth concentration at the top
- Declining social mobility
- The hollowing out of the middle class
These trends contradicted the idea that hard work and individual initiative were enough to guarantee prosperity. The frontier seemed to be closing in economic terms as well.
Climate Change and Environmental Limits
Increasing awareness of climate change and environmental degradation challenged the notion of limitless resources that had underpinned the frontier myth. It became clear that:
- Unchecked expansion and resource exploitation were unsustainable
- Environmental problems didn't respect national borders
- Addressing these issues required collective action and regulation
This reality conflicted with the individualistic, anti-government ethos of frontier ideology.
The Rise of Trumpism
Donald Trump's political rise and presidency can be seen as a reaction to the collapse of the frontier myth. Key aspects of Trumpism include:
- Nativism and anti-immigrant rhetoric
- Promises to bring back lost jobs and industries
- Skepticism of international cooperation and free trade
- Appeals to restore a supposedly lost greatness
Trump's slogan "Make America Great Again" tapped into nostalgia for a time when the frontier myth seemed more viable. His proposed border wall became a powerful symbol - not of expansion, but of retrenchment and fear.
The Pooling of Violence
With no more frontiers for expansion, Grandin argues that the violence and racism inherent in the frontier myth have "pooled" within America's borders. This is evident in:
- Increased political polarization
- The rise of white nationalist movements
- Militarized policing
- Mass incarceration
- Ongoing racial tensions
Without the "safety valve" of expansion or the unifying force of external enemies, these tensions have turned inward.
Consequences and Future Implications
The Loss of a Unifying Narrative
The end of the frontier myth has left a vacuum in America's national story. For centuries, the idea of endless expansion and opportunity provided:
- A sense of common purpose
- A way to reconcile diverse groups
- An explanation for American exceptionalism
Without this narrative, it has become more difficult to forge national consensus or articulate a shared vision for the country's future.
Challenges to Democracy
The collapse of the frontier myth has exposed weaknesses in American democratic institutions. Issues include:
- Increased polarization and partisanship
- Erosion of trust in government and media
- Vulnerability to populist and authoritarian appeals
- Difficulty addressing long-term challenges like climate change
The frontier myth had long papered over these issues. Its absence forces a confrontation with the complexities and contradictions of American democracy.
Economic and Social Policy Implications
The end of the frontier myth necessitates a rethinking of economic and social policies. Key areas for consideration include:
- How to provide economic opportunity in a post-industrial economy
- Addressing wealth inequality and declining social mobility
- Developing sustainable environmental practices
- Reforming immigration policies
- Redefining America's role in the world
Without the promise of endless expansion, more deliberate and equitable policies may be needed to ensure broad-based prosperity.
Identity and Values
The frontier myth played a crucial role in shaping American identity and values. Its decline raises questions about:
- What it means to be American in the 21st century
- How to balance individualism with collective responsibility
- The role of diversity in national identity
- Reconciling past injustices with future aspirations
Developing new narratives and value systems to replace the frontier myth will be a significant cultural challenge.
Global Implications
The end of the American frontier myth has consequences beyond U.S. borders:
- It may lead to a less interventionist foreign policy
- It could reduce America's soft power and global influence
- It might create space for other nations or ideologies to fill the vacuum
How America adapts to this new reality will have far-reaching impacts on global politics and economics.
Conclusion
Greg Grandin's "The End of the Myth" provides a sweeping analysis of how the frontier concept has shaped American history, politics, and identity. From the nation's founding through the early 21st century, the idea of an ever-expanding frontier - whether physical, ideological, or economic - has been central to the American experience.
The book argues that this myth has now definitively ended. The consequences of this collapse are far-reaching:
- It helps explain the rise of Trumpism and current political divisions
- It forces a reckoning with long-ignored injustices and contradictions in American society
- It necessitates new approaches to economic, social, and foreign policy
- It challenges fundamental aspects of American identity and values
Grandin's work suggests that coming to terms with the end of the frontier myth is crucial for understanding modern America. It also implies that developing new narratives and approaches will be necessary for addressing the nation's current challenges.
The book leaves readers with important questions to consider:
- How can America maintain a sense of dynamism and opportunity without the frontier myth?
- What new stories or ideals might unite an increasingly diverse nation?
- How should the country's history be understood and taught in light of this analysis?
- What policies and values are needed for a post-frontier America to thrive?
"The End of the Myth" offers no easy answers to these questions. However, it provides a compelling framework for thinking about America's past, present, and future. By tracing the rise and fall of this foundational national myth, Grandin illuminates both the sources of current crises and potential paths forward.
As America grapples with political polarization, economic inequality, racial tensions, and global challenges, the insights from this book become increasingly relevant. Understanding the role the frontier myth has played - and the implications of its demise - may be key to navigating the complex realities of the 21st century.
Ultimately, "The End of the Myth" is a call to honestly confront America's history and current circumstances. It suggests that only by moving beyond comforting myths can the nation address its deep-seated issues and forge a more just and sustainable future. While the end of the frontier myth presents significant challenges, it also offers an opportunity to reimagine what America can be.