The Future Is History

Introduction

Masha Gessen's "The Future Is History" offers a compelling and insightful look into the complex history of modern Russia. The book explores how a nation that seemed poised for democratic transformation after the fall of the Soviet Union instead slid back into authoritarian rule under Vladimir Putin. Gessen weaves together historical analysis, personal stories, and sociological insights to paint a vivid picture of Russia's tumultuous journey from the late Soviet era to the present day.

At its core, the book argues that Russia's lack of self-reflection and understanding of its own history and society left it vulnerable to the resurgence of totalitarian tendencies. By following the lives of several individuals born in the 1980s, Gessen illustrates how the hopes and dreams of a generation were shaped and ultimately crushed by the country's political and social upheavals.

The Legacy of Soviet Repression

Gessen begins by exploring the profound impact of Soviet-era repression on Russian society and intellectual life. In the 1920s, following the Bolshevik Revolution, the new communist regime actively suppressed fields like psychology and sociology. These disciplines were seen as incompatible with the Marxist ideal of the "new Soviet man" who found purpose solely through his role in the collective.

This suppression had far-reaching consequences:

1. Moscow University's Psychological Society was dissolved in 1925.
2. Works by influential thinkers like Sigmund Freud were restricted in libraries.
3. By 1931, all social sciences and humanities had been censored from Russian universities.

The result was a society largely incapable of self-reflection or understanding its own social dynamics. This intellectual vacuum would prove crucial in the years to come, as Russians struggled to make sense of rapid changes in their society.

The Gorbachev Era and Perestroika

In the mid-1980s, Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev initiated a series of reforms known as perestroika (restructuring). These reforms aimed to open up Soviet society and move away from the terror and repression of previous regimes. However, the implementation of these changes proved challenging:

1. Gorbachev appointed Alexander Nikolaevich Yakovlev as his "chief ideologue" to manage the details of perestroika.
2. Many government officials opposed the reforms, fearing loss of power and influence.
3. The newly established Center for Sociology struggled to understand the changing nature of Soviet society.

One of the key questions researchers sought to answer was: "Who is today's Homo sovieticus?" Early polls suggested that younger people were becoming less Communist-minded and more individualistic. However, these findings would prove misleading in the years to come.

The Collapse of the Soviet Union

The events of August 1991 marked a turning point in Russian history:

1. A three-day standoff between Boris Yeltsin and hardliners who had effectively held Gorbachev hostage in Crimea.
2. Gorbachev's return and shocking decision to shut down the Communist Party.
3. Yeltsin's rise to power as Gorbachev resigned.

The aftermath of these events left Russians in a state of confusion, anxiety, and depression. The country faced numerous challenges:

1. Uncertainty over which territories would be included in the new Russia.
2. Continued use of Soviet rubles and passports.
3. Rapid privatization of businesses and legalization of private commerce.
4. A plummeting ruble value.

This period of uncertainty and instability created perfect conditions for the rise of an authoritarian leader. Many Russians, overwhelmed by the sudden openness of their future, longed for someone to make difficult choices on their behalf.

The Yeltsin Years: Economic Turmoil and Growing Inequality

The early 1990s saw dramatic changes in Russian society as the country transitioned to a market economy. These changes brought both opportunities and hardships:

1. Some people became suddenly wealthy, while others fell into poverty.
2. Open borders allowed Russians to see the stark differences in living standards compared to other countries.
3. New class distinctions emerged, with some flaunting their wealth in ways that were previously taboo.

The experiences of this period varied greatly depending on one's location and circumstances:

1. In major cities like Moscow, some families enjoyed newfound prosperity and access to luxury goods.
2. In smaller cities and towns, extreme poverty led to desperate measures, including prostitution and hunting stray dogs for food.

These stark contrasts in living conditions laid the groundwork for growing resentment and nostalgia for the perceived stability of the Soviet era.

Chechnya and the Erosion of Yeltsin's Popularity

Yeltsin's presidency faced significant challenges, particularly in dealing with the legacy of Soviet atrocities and managing the conflict in Chechnya:

1. Efforts to expose Soviet-era crimes proved difficult, as many acts defied logic and were hard to explain to the public.
2. The military intervention in Chechnya, which began in 1994, became increasingly unpopular as casualties mounted.

As Yeltsin's popularity waned, many Russians began to long for the perceived simplicity of Soviet times:

1. A movie called "Old Songs About the Most Important Things," which nostalgically portrayed life under the Soviet regime, became a massive hit.
2. The film's lack of conflict or drama appealed to those yearning for predictability and stability.

This growing nostalgia for the Soviet era would play a crucial role in shaping Russia's political future.

The Rise of Vladimir Putin

As Russia faced economic collapse and a series of apartment bombings in 1999, the stage was set for a new leader to emerge. Vladimir Putin, a former KGB lieutenant colonel, caught the public's attention with his forceful response to the bombings:

1. Putin promised swift justice for the perpetrators, vowing to kill them on sight.
2. His decisive manner contrasted sharply with Yeltsin's perceived weakness.
3. Many Russians saw Putin as a strong leader who could bring stability back to the country.

In a rapid series of events, Putin was appointed prime minister in August 1999 and then handed the presidency by Yeltsin just a few months later.

Putin's Early Years: The Move Towards Authoritarianism

Once in power, Putin quickly took steps to consolidate his authority and reverse many of Yeltsin's reforms:

1. He strengthened federal oversight over Russia's 89 districts, firing local leaders appointed by Yeltsin.
2. National television was brought back under Kremlin control.
3. Critics of Putin's presidency were routinely smeared in the media.

These actions were part of what some political scientists termed an "authoritarian situation" - a transitional period moving towards full authoritarianism. Despite the erosion of rights and reforms, many Russians responded positively to Putin's aggressive policies, finding comfort in the perceived return to stability.

The 2008-2012 Interlude and Putin's Return

In 2008, having reached his constitutional limit of two consecutive terms as president, Putin moved to the role of prime minister. However, his influence remained strong:

1. Putin ranked fifth in a poll asking Russians to name the greatest Russians who'd ever lived.
2. Worryingly, Josef Stalin's popularity in similar polls had also increased significantly since the late 1980s.

During this period, civil rights activists began organizing in increasing numbers, inspired by movements like the Ukrainian uprising in 2004 and the Occupy movement in the United States. These activists were alarmed by:

1. Putin's rewriting of the constitution.
2. The removal of various rights and freedoms.
3. The 2011 announcement that Putin would return to the presidency in 2012.

The 2012 election and Putin's return to the presidency marked a turning point, with many Russians feeling that the government was no longer even attempting to hide its corruption.

Crackdown on Protests and Anti-LGBTQ+ Legislation

As Putin reassumed the presidency, the Kremlin took increasingly harsh measures against protesters and dissidents:

1. The 2012 inauguration day protests at Bolotnaya Square turned violent, with thousands of armed troops descending on peaceful demonstrators.
2. Twenty-four protesters were arrested, and many, including protest leader Masha, were injured.

Simultaneously, the government began pushing for anti-LGBTQ+ legislation:

1. Popular TV personalities advocated for bans on "homosexual propaganda."
2. A majority of Russians supported these measures in public polls.
3. Violent attacks on LGBTQ+ individuals increased, often with little police intervention.

These developments marked a clear shift away from the openness of the immediate post-Soviet period and towards a more repressive society.

The Impact on Russian Society

The rapid changes in Russian society under Putin's rule had profound effects on the population:

1. Many LGBTQ+ individuals, like Lyosha, felt compelled to leave the country for their safety.
2. Those who had initially welcomed Putin's "stability" now reported increasing anxiety and panic attacks.
3. Psychoanalyst Marina Arutyunyan observed symptoms in her patients that reminded her of Freud's concept of a "death drive" - a self-destructive impulse following trauma.

The overall mood in Russia shifted from one of cautious optimism to fear and uncertainty about the future.

The Role of History and Social Sciences

Throughout the book, Gessen emphasizes the critical role that understanding history and social sciences plays in a society's ability to navigate political changes. Russia's long suppression of these fields left its citizens ill-equipped to process the rapid transformations of the post-Soviet era:

1. The lack of sociological data made it difficult for leaders to understand public opinion and needs.
2. Many Russians had limited knowledge of Soviet-era atrocities, making them more susceptible to nostalgia for that period.
3. The absence of a strong tradition of self-reflection and critical thinking made it easier for authoritarian tendencies to take hold.

This intellectual vacuum created fertile ground for the resurgence of totalitarian ideas and practices.

The Power of Nostalgia and Stability

One of the key themes in "The Future Is History" is the powerful appeal of nostalgia and the promise of stability in times of uncertainty:

1. The popularity of Soviet-themed entertainment in the 1990s reflected a longing for simpler times.
2. Putin's initial appeal was largely based on his promise to bring order and predictability back to Russian life.
3. Many Russians were willing to trade certain freedoms for a sense of security and stability.

This desire for stability, rooted in the trauma of the chaotic 1990s, played a crucial role in allowing Putin to consolidate power and roll back democratic reforms.

The Manipulation of Identity and Patriotism

Gessen explores how the Putin regime skillfully manipulated notions of Russian identity and patriotism to maintain popular support:

1. The promotion of a strong, assertive Russia on the world stage appealed to those who felt humiliated by the country's diminished status after the Soviet collapse.
2. Anti-LGBTQ+ legislation was framed as a defense of traditional Russian values against Western influence.
3. Critics of the government were often portrayed as unpatriotic or agents of foreign powers.

This manipulation of national identity served to create an "us vs. them" mentality that helped shore up support for increasingly authoritarian policies.

The Role of Media and Information Control

The book highlights the crucial role of media control in Putin's consolidation of power:

1. Early in his presidency, Putin brought major television networks under Kremlin control.
2. Critics of the regime were routinely smeared or silenced in state-controlled media.
3. The internet and social media, initially seen as spaces for free expression, became increasingly monitored and restricted.

This control over information flow allowed the government to shape public opinion and limit exposure to alternative viewpoints.

The Impact on Young Russians

Gessen pays particular attention to the experiences of Russians born in the 1980s, who came of age during the tumultuous post-Soviet period:

1. These young people initially had high hopes for Russia's democratic future.
2. Many became disillusioned as they witnessed the erosion of freedoms and opportunities.
3. Some, like Lyosha and Masha, became activists or chose to leave the country.
4. Others adapted to the new reality, finding ways to navigate the increasingly authoritarian system.

The stories of these individuals provide a poignant illustration of how political changes can shape the lives and aspirations of an entire generation.

The Resurgence of Soviet-Style Practices

As Putin's rule progressed, many practices reminiscent of the Soviet era began to reemerge:

1. The use of psychiatric institutions to silence dissidents.
2. The revival of Soviet-style youth organizations to instill patriotism and loyalty to the state.
3. The return of state control over various aspects of private life, including sexuality and family structure.

These developments represented a stark reversal of the liberalizing trends of the 1990s and early 2000s.

The International Context

While focusing primarily on internal Russian dynamics, Gessen also explores how international events influenced Russia's trajectory:

1. The NATO bombing of Serbia in 1999 was seen by many Russians as a humiliation and a threat to their allies.
2. Western criticism of Putin's policies often served to reinforce the narrative of Russia being under siege from external enemies.
3. The annexation of Crimea in 2014 was portrayed domestically as a reassertion of Russian power and a correction of historical injustice.

These international factors played a significant role in shaping Russian public opinion and providing justification for increasingly authoritarian policies.

The Psychology of Totalitarianism

Drawing on the work of thinkers like Erich Fromm, Gessen explores the psychological underpinnings of totalitarianism:

1. The appeal of a strong leader who promises to make difficult decisions on behalf of a confused populace.
2. The desire for simple answers and clear enemies in times of uncertainty.
3. The willingness to trade freedom for a sense of security and belonging.

These psychological factors help explain why many Russians were willing to accept or even embrace the return to authoritarian rule.

The Role of Trauma in Shaping Society

The book emphasizes the long-lasting impact of collective trauma on Russian society:

1. The terror of the Stalin era left deep scars that continued to influence behavior decades later.
2. The chaos and economic hardship of the 1990s created a longing for stability at any cost.
3. The sudden loss of superpower status after the Soviet collapse engendered feelings of humiliation and resentment.

These traumatic experiences made Russian society particularly vulnerable to authoritarian appeals and resistant to democratic reforms.

The Suppression of Civil Society

Gessen documents the systematic dismantling of independent civil society organizations under Putin:

1. NGOs were required to register as "foreign agents" if they received funding from abroad.
2. Independent media outlets were gradually shut down or brought under state control.
3. Public protests became increasingly risky, with participants facing arrest, fines, or violence.

This erosion of civil society left few avenues for expressing dissent or organizing opposition to the government.

The Manipulation of Language and Meaning

The book explores how the Putin regime skillfully manipulated language and concepts to maintain power:

1. The term "democracy" was redefined to mean stability and strong leadership rather than political pluralism.
2. Words like "fascist" were used to discredit any opposition to the government.
3. The concept of "traditional values" was weaponized to justify discrimination and repression.

This linguistic manipulation made it difficult for Russians to articulate alternative visions for their society.

The Role of the Orthodox Church

Gessen examines the increasing influence of the Russian Orthodox Church under Putin:

1. The church became a key ally of the government in promoting "traditional values."
2. Religious language and symbols were used to legitimize state policies.
3. Critics of the church or displays of "blasphemy" faced legal consequences.

This alliance between church and state further narrowed the space for dissent and alternative viewpoints in Russian society.

The Impact on Education and Academia

The book highlights how the education system and academia were affected by the authoritarian turn:

1. History textbooks were rewritten to present a more positive view of Russia's past, including the Stalin era.
2. Universities faced pressure to conform to government narratives and limit critical thinking.
3. Scholars who challenged official views risked losing their positions or facing other consequences.

These changes in education threatened to perpetuate authoritarian tendencies by shaping the worldview of future generations.

The Erosion of Legal Protections

Gessen documents the gradual erosion of legal protections and the rule of law under Putin:

1. The judiciary became increasingly subservient to the executive branch.
2. New laws were passed that could be selectively enforced against government critics.
3. The concept of "telephone justice," where judges received instructions from political authorities, became widespread.

This weakening of legal institutions left citizens with little recourse against government abuses and arbitrary enforcement of laws.

The Role of Corruption

The book explores how endemic corruption contributed to the consolidation of authoritarian rule:

1. The privatization process of the 1990s created a class of oligarchs beholden to political power.
2. Corruption became a tool for ensuring loyalty and punishing dissent.
3. The blurring of lines between state and private interests made it difficult to challenge the system.

This pervasive corruption undermined efforts to build democratic institutions and fostered a cynical attitude towards politics among many Russians.

The Impact on Personal Relationships

Gessen examines how the political climate affected personal relationships and family dynamics:

1. Political differences strained friendships and family ties.
2. Parents worried about their children's future in an increasingly repressive society.
3. LGBTQ+ individuals faced difficult choices between living authentically and ensuring their safety.

These personal stories illustrate the profound ways in which political systems shape individual lives and relationships.

The Role of Fear and Intimidation

The book documents the increasing use of fear and intimidation as tools of control:

1. High-profile assassinations of government critics sent a chilling message to potential dissenters.
2. The threat of job loss, legal troubles, or violence kept many people from speaking out.
3. A pervasive sense of being watched or monitored led to self-censorship.

This climate of fear served to stifle opposition and maintain the status quo.

The Manipulation of Memory

Gessen explores how the regime manipulated collective memory to suit its purposes:

1. Soviet-era achievements were celebrated while downplaying or ignoring atrocities.
2. World War II (known in Russia as the Great Patriotic War) became a central focus of state propaganda.
3. Alternative interpretations of historical events were marginalized or criminalized.

This control over historical narrative helped legitimize the current regime and its policies.

The Role of Youth in Resistance and Adaptation

The book pays particular attention to how young Russians responded to the changing political landscape:

1. Some became active in protest movements, despite the risks involved.
2. Others found ways to express dissent through art, music, or online platforms.
3. Many chose to leave the country in search of better opportunities and greater freedom.
4. Some adapted to the new reality, finding ways to succeed within the system while maintaining private reservations.

These diverse responses highlight the complex ways in which individuals navigate authoritarian systems.

The International Implications

Gessen considers the broader implications of Russia's authoritarian turn for the rest of the world:

1. The erosion of democratic norms in Russia emboldened authoritarian leaders elsewhere.
2. Russian interference in other countries' elections raised concerns about the vulnerability of democratic systems.
3. The use of disinformation and propaganda techniques developed in Russia spread to other contexts.

These developments underscore the global significance of Russia's political trajectory.

Conclusion: The Future of Russia

In concluding "The Future Is History," Gessen offers a sobering assessment of Russia's prospects:

1. The deep-rooted nature of authoritarian tendencies in Russian society makes rapid change unlikely.
2. The suppression of independent thought and civil society has limited the capacity for organized resistance.
3. The manipulation of history and collective memory complicates efforts to envision alternative futures.

However, the author also notes the resilience and creativity of those Russians who continue to resist authoritarianism, suggesting that the possibility for change, however distant, remains alive.

Gessen's work serves as both a warning about the fragility of democratic institutions and a call to vigilance in preserving them. By tracing Russia's journey from the hope of the post-Soviet era to the authoritarian present, "The Future Is History" offers valuable insights into the complex interplay of historical, psychological, and social factors that shape a nation's political destiny.

The book's central argument - that a society's understanding of itself and its history is crucial to its ability to resist totalitarian tendencies - has implications far beyond Russia's borders. It challenges readers to consider how their own societies grapple with the past and how this understanding (or lack thereof) shapes their political present and future.

Ultimately, "The Future Is History" is a powerful reminder of the importance of preserving historical memory, fostering critical thinking, and maintaining robust civil society institutions as bulwarks against the ever-present threat of authoritarianism. It is a deeply researched and passionately argued work that offers crucial insights into one of the most significant political developments of our time - the resurgence of totalitarianism in Russia and its implications for the world.