The Future Is History Summary

How does a society with a fragmented understanding of its past navigate its future? Russia's trajectory from the USSR to autocracy under Putin reveals the consequences of historical amnesia.

1. The USSR Suppressed Self-Understanding

Throughout the Soviet era, disciplines like psychology and sociology were silenced. These sciences were seen as counterproductive to the Soviet ideal of collectivism, where individuality was downplayed. Post-revolution Marxism discouraged self-reflection, as humans were expected to align with the goals of the state machine.

The ban on psychological and sociological studies left generations without tools to understand themselves or their society. Moscow University dissolved its Psychological Society in 1925, and critical works by figures like Sigmund Freud were relegated to restricted spaces. Social sciences weren’t reintroduced until late, in the 1960s and 1970s. However, even when reintroduced, they lagged far behind international advancements.

This gap in knowledge came into sharp focus in the late 1980s with Gorbachev’s reforms. Despite modernizing intentions, Soviet citizens lacked the education and societal tools to adapt quickly to the transformational changes occurring in their society.

Examples

• The Soviet Union conducted its first public survey only in 1987.
• Russian professors were teaching outdated psychology decades after Freud’s ideas became commonplace globally.
• The Soviet "new man" was designed to dismiss self-awareness in favor of duty toward the state.

2. Identity Crisis During Perestroika

The policy of perestroika, introduced by Mikhail Gorbachev, set the Soviet Union on an uncertain path toward reform and modernization. This restructuring sought to open society, but it inadvertently revealed a deep disconnect between citizens and the Communist Party’s ideology.

Alexander Nikolaevich Yakovlev helped implement “perestroika” but found resistance from a bureaucratic system intent on preserving its power. The looming dissolution of the Communist Party further fueled political instability, leaving people adrift without a unifying belief or direction. The question of "Who is today's Homo sovieticus?" emerged, probing whether the Soviet citizen had evolved into someone more individualistic.

Findings from a 1988 poll echoed earlier predictions like Andrei Amalrik’s essay "Will the Soviet Union Survive Until 1984?" The public’s rejection of Marxist-Leninist values signified societal fractures. However, instead of evolving as a resilient democracy, the weakened Soviet identity eventually paved the way for authoritarianism.

Examples

• Less than 6% believed Marxism provided life’s answers, according to surveys in 1988.
• Yakovlev faced frustration with party officials who passively resisted reforms.
• Amalrik’s predictions highlighted the absence of a cohesive belief system holding Soviet society together.

3. Post-Soviet Chaos and Authoritarian Opportunity

The collapse of the Soviet Union in the early 1990s planted seeds of confusion and fear. When Gorbachev abolished the Communist Party, and Yeltsin assumed power, citizens faced overwhelming uncertainty. This led many to seek strong leadership to restore order.

The sudden move towards democracy was compounded by economic struggles, as Russia grappled with a tumbling ruble and the privatization of state assets. This era fostered a national psyche of distrust and anxiety. Sociologist Erich Fromm’s theories suggest that societal upheaval like this often leads people to seek solace in authoritarian figures. For many Russians, the post-Soviet unpredictability was intolerable, making the promise of stability under future leaders, such as Putin, appealing.

Examples

• Russia’s transition was chaotic, evidenced by disputes over state borders like Kaliningrad’s integration.
• Privatization created enormous inequality, driving resentment toward new wealth disparities.
• Fromm compared this reactionary turn to the rise of fascism in post-WWI Germany.

4. Widening Class Inequalities

The emergence of capitalism in the early 1990s exacerbated societal divisions, bringing visible economic inequality to Russians for the first time. During the Soviet era, wealth differences were veiled, and flaunting them was socially condemned. Now, open markets highlighted disparity. A nouveau riche class arose, while many others sank into poverty.

The disparity created a pervasive sense of resentment and jealousy. With wealth in the hands of unqualified or opportunistic individuals, many Russians felt increasingly disillusioned. Even local governance under leaders like Boris Nemtsov couldn’t alleviate the divides. Economic despair manifested through horrifying extremes, such as child exploitation and sheer hunger in impoverished regions.

Examples

• Children in Solikamsk resorted to performing acts of desperation for food.
• While some regions like Nizhny Novgorod showed wealth, others fell into deep poverty.
• The spread of capitalistic values led to public displays of wealth, fueling societal anger.

5. Soviet Nostalgia Rises with Yeltsin’s Uncertainty

With renewed struggles, citizens began reminiscing about the simpler times under Soviet rule, largely ignoring the atrocities and oppressive governance. Yeltsin’s presidency became unpopular as he failed to fully expose Stalin’s crimes or win public support during the brutal Chechen conflict.

The 1995 release of "Old Songs About the Most Important Things," which celebrated Soviet aesthetics, reflected growing nostalgia. Its popularity underscored a yearning for an idealized version of the Soviet Union—one devoid of the challenges of democracy or capitalism.

Examples

• Yeltsin struggled to manage the Chechen War, which resulted in significant casualties.
• Revelations about crimes like Stalin’s execution “competitions” shocked even the excavation teams, leaving much hidden.
• The movie "Old Songs" inspired three sequels, symbolizing public longing for uncomplicated eras.

6. Putin’s Authoritarian Rise

Facing mounting crises at the turn of the century, the Russian populace was increasingly taken by Vladimir Putin’s persona of resolve. His 1999 ascension as prime minister marked a turning point. Putin projected himself as a solution to instability, gaining popularity following his response to apartment bombings and his handling of Chechnya.

Putin leveraged his experience in the KGB to present himself as a decisive and disciplined leader. Many saw him as the answer to the budushchego net (no future) sentiment pervading society. As the nation longed for security, Putin became not just a leader but a symbol of hope.

Examples

• Emotional responses to NATO’s actions in Serbia painted Putin as a protector of national pride.
• His tough rhetoric over the 1999 apartment bombings resonated deeply with disillusioned Russians.
• Yeltsin’s chaotic governance left a vacuum Putin decisively filled.

7. Erosion of Democratic Institutions

Putin swiftly reversed any democratic strides Russia had made, consolidating media control and empowering central leadership over regional governments. As propaganda proliferated, critics of the Kremlin were actively discredited, and allies like Anna Levchenko furthered divisive agendas, such as equating homosexuality with pedophilia.

Within two years, Putin effectively dismantled reforms from Gorbachev’s era, reintroducing authoritarian stability that appealed to many Russians. This suppression forced intellectuals and liberal thinkers to either adapt or flee.

Examples

• Regional autonomy granted under Yeltsin was revoked under Putin.
• Televised smear campaigns, such as against Andreas Umland, spread disinformation to marginalize dissent.
• Marina Arutyunyan noted reduced anxiety in patients as Putin centralized control, ironically highlighting reliance on authority.

8. Anti-Democracy Protests and Resistance

In the 2010s, increasing resistance appeared against Putin’s autocratic policies. Activists like Masha emerged, pushing against government corruption and human rights abuses. However, the crackdown following these protests revealed just how far the Kremlin was willing to go to maintain power.

Protests during Putin’s 2012 re-election were met with force, and nationwide surveillance increased. Opposition leaders were arrested, and the government cleverly manipulated media narratives to discredit further activism.

Examples

• Masha’s detainment highlighted Kremlin responses to organized protests.
• The Bolotnaya Square confrontation demonstrated deliberate provocation tactics by authorities.
• Harsh security laws aimed to delegitimize protesters’ motivations.

9. Weaponizing Homophobia

Under Putin, laws targeting homosexuality became political tools to polarize society and silence dissent. Homophobic propaganda fueled brutal crimes and allowed the government to frame alternative lifestyles as unpatriotic threats. Anti-gay legislation symbolized broader suppression of free expression.

Propaganda blurred lines between homosexuality and criminal acts, whipping the public into a fear-driven frenzy. This led to tragic murders and widespread violence against LGBTQ+ Russians.

Examples

• Legislation forbade homosexuals from adopting children.
• Media rhetoric, such as Dmitry Kiselev's comments, incited public hatred.
• LGBTQ activists like Lyosha sought asylum after escalating threats.

Takeaways

1. Encourage education that connects history to the present, promoting collective understanding and self-awareness.
2. Be vigilant of voices that exploit public fears for political gain; media literacy is paramount.
3. Support organizations working for human rights and democracy in environments where these values are under threat.