The Heartbeat of Wounded Knee

Introduction

"The Heartbeat of Wounded Knee" by David Treuer is a groundbreaking book that challenges the common misconception that Native American history and culture ended with the tragic massacre at Wounded Knee in 1890. This powerful work sheds light on the resilience, adaptability, and continued vitality of Native American communities in the face of tremendous adversity over the past 130 years.

Treuer, an Ojibwe author and scholar, weaves together historical research, personal stories, and cultural analysis to present a nuanced and compelling narrative of Native American life since the late 19th century. The book serves as both a corrective to oversimplified portrayals of Indigenous peoples and a celebration of their enduring strength and diversity.

The Massacre at Wounded Knee

To understand the significance of Treuer's work, we must first revisit the events that have come to symbolize the "end" of Native American history in popular imagination.

On December 29, 1890, a group of over 350 Miniconjou Lakota people, led by Chief Spotted Elk, were camped at Wounded Knee Creek in South Dakota. They had left the Standing Rock Indian Reservation due to rising tensions and fears of police reprisals following the killing of Sitting Bull, a respected Hunkpapa Lakota chief.

The U.S. 7th Cavalry surrounded the camp and attempted to disarm the Lakota. A scuffle broke out, leading to a devastating massacre. The soldiers, armed with powerful weapons including four Hotchkiss guns, opened fire indiscriminately. Women and children fleeing the scene were pursued and killed. By the end of the bloodshed, approximately 150 Lakota lay dead.

This horrific event came to be seen as the symbolic end of the "Indian Wars" and, for many, the end of Native American culture and resistance. Dee Brown's influential 1970 book "Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee" further solidified this narrative in the public consciousness.

However, Treuer argues that this view is both inaccurate and damaging. While Wounded Knee was undoubtedly a tragedy and a low point for Native Americans, it was far from the end of their story. The author sets out to illuminate the rich and complex history that has unfolded in the century since that dark day.

The Era of Forced Assimilation

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the U.S. government pursued a policy of forced assimilation aimed at eradicating Native American cultures and integrating Indigenous peoples into mainstream American society. One of the most insidious tools of this policy was the system of Native American boarding schools.

Native American Boarding Schools

The Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA), established in 1824 to manage the government's relationship with Native tribes, played a central role in implementing the boarding school program. Beginning in the 1890s, Native American children were forcibly removed from their families and communities and sent to distant boarding schools.

These institutions, modeled after the Carlisle Indian Industrial School in Pennsylvania, aimed to "kill the Indian, save the man" by stripping children of their cultural identities and imposing Euro-American values and practices. The methods used were often cruel and traumatic:

1. Children were forced to cut their hair short, which for many tribes was a deeply meaningful cultural act associated with mourning.
2. Speaking Native languages was strictly forbidden, with harsh punishments for those who disobeyed.
3. Traditional gender roles were suppressed, with girls limited to learning domestic skills regardless of their tribe's customs.
4. Physical abuse and neglect were common, leaving lasting scars on generations of Native Americans.

While the boarding school system was a source of immense pain and cultural loss, it inadvertently contributed to the formation of a pan-Indian identity. By bringing together children from different tribes, it fostered connections and solidarity that would later prove valuable in the struggle for Native American rights.

The Allotment Policy

Another devastating policy of this era was the allotment of tribal lands, implemented through the Dawes Act of 1887. This legislation aimed to break up communally held reservation lands into individual parcels, ostensibly to promote economic development and assimilation.

The allotment policy had several harmful consequences:

1. It drastically reduced Native American land holdings, as "surplus" land was sold to white settlers.
2. The best parcels were often given to those who supported government policies or sold to non-Native buyers.
3. Many families struggled to survive on poor-quality allotments, leading to increased poverty and reliance on government support.
4. Traditional tribal structures and communal ways of life were disrupted.

By 1934, when the Indian Reorganization Act put a stop to further allotments, Native American-owned land had decreased by 66 percent. Although some land was subsequently restored to tribal ownership, the damage to Native communities was profound and long-lasting.

Native Americans in the World Wars

Despite the oppressive policies they faced at home, Native Americans demonstrated remarkable patriotism and courage by serving in both World Wars in large numbers.

World War I

Native Americans had the highest rate of military service among any U.S. minority group in World War I. Their participation began even before the United States officially entered the conflict, with some enlisting in the Canadian military as early as 1914.

Key aspects of Native American involvement in World War I include:

1. The Onondaga and Oneida people from New York State independently declared war on Germany.
2. Choctaw soldiers became the first "code talkers," using their native language to transmit secure military messages.
3. Francis Pegahmagabow, an Ojibwe sniper serving in the Canadian Army, became the most effective sniper of the war with 378 confirmed kills.

World War II

Native American participation in World War II was equally impressive and extensive:

1. In June 1942, the Iroquois Confederacy formally declared war on the Axis Powers, emphasizing their status as the world's oldest democracy.
2. By 1944, over 33 percent of the Native American adult male population had served in the war effort.
3. Native American code talkers, particularly from the Navajo tribe, played a crucial role in secure communications throughout the Pacific theater.

The valor and sacrifice of Native American soldiers in both world wars stand as a testament to their commitment to the United States, despite the injustices they faced. However, upon returning home, many veterans found that they still faced discrimination and inequality, setting the stage for the activism that would follow in the coming decades.

The Rise of Native American Activism

The post-World War II era saw significant changes in Native American communities, including increased urbanization and growing awareness of social and economic inequalities. By 1970, Native American unemployment was ten times the national average, and 40 percent lived below the poverty line. These conditions, coupled with ongoing issues of police brutality and discrimination, gave rise to a new wave of Native American activism.

The American Indian Movement (AIM)

Founded in Minneapolis in 1968, the American Indian Movement (AIM) emerged as a powerful force for Native American rights and justice. Inspired by the civil rights movement but employing more militant tactics similar to the Black Panthers, AIM focused on addressing issues such as:

1. Police brutality and harassment in urban areas
2. Poverty and unemployment on reservations
3. Preservation of Native American culture and sovereignty
4. Land rights and treaty obligations

One of AIM's most significant actions was the 1972 "Trail of Broken Treaties" caravan, which traveled across the country to draw attention to Native American grievances. The caravan culminated in the occupation of the Bureau of Indian Affairs offices in Washington, D.C., for several days in November 1972.

This occupation, while controversial, succeeded in bringing national attention to Native American issues and forced the government to engage in negotiations. Although the immediate results were limited, the event marked a turning point in Native American activism and set the stage for further actions throughout the 1970s.

The Occupation of Wounded Knee

In February 1973, AIM activists, along with local Oglala Lakota members, occupied the town of Wounded Knee on the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation in South Dakota. This 71-day standoff with federal authorities was sparked by allegations of corruption in the tribal government and ongoing violations of treaty rights.

The occupation drew intense media coverage and public attention to Native American issues. Although it ended without achieving all of its goals, it became a powerful symbol of Indigenous resistance and helped galvanize support for Native American rights across the country.

The Gaming Revolution

One of the most significant developments in recent Native American history has been the rise of tribal gaming operations. This phenomenon has had far-reaching economic and social impacts on many Native communities.

The Legal Foundations of Indian Gaming

The path to legalized tribal gaming began with a seemingly minor tax dispute in 1972. Helen and Russell Bryan, members of the Chippewa tribe living on the Leech Lake Reservation in Minnesota, challenged a $148 property tax bill from Itasca County. The case eventually reached the U.S. Supreme Court, which ruled that states do not have the right to tax Native Americans on their reservations or regulate their activities there.

This ruling set the stage for the development of high-stakes bingo operations on tribal lands, beginning with the Seminole tribe in Florida in 1979. Despite attempts by state and local authorities to shut down these operations, the courts consistently upheld tribal sovereignty in gaming matters.

The Indian Gaming Regulatory Act

In 1988, Congress passed the Indian Gaming Regulatory Act to establish a framework for regulating tribal gaming operations. The act:

1. Confirmed the legality of reservation casinos
2. Required that the type of gambling offered be legal in the surrounding state
3. Established the National Indian Gaming Commission as a regulatory body

Following the passage of this act, tribal gaming revenues exploded, growing from $100 million in 1988 to $26 billion by 2009 – surpassing the combined revenues of Las Vegas and Atlantic City.

Impact of Tribal Gaming

The rise of Indian gaming has had a transformative effect on many Native American communities, though the benefits have not been evenly distributed:

1. Some tribes have seen dramatic improvements in their economic situations, funding improved healthcare, education, and infrastructure.

2. Gaming revenues have allowed some tribes to repurchase ancestral lands and invest in cultural preservation efforts.

3. The industry has created job opportunities for both Native and non-Native people in many areas.

4. However, the impact on overall poverty rates has been modest, with the poverty rate in tribal gaming areas decreasing by only two percent between 1989 and 1995.

5. Some critics argue that reliance on gaming revenues has led to internal conflicts and a shift away from traditional values in some communities.

Despite these challenges, tribal gaming has undeniably provided many Native American communities with unprecedented economic resources and a degree of self-determination that was unthinkable just a few decades ago.

Contemporary Native American Life

Treuer's book emphasizes that Native American cultures are not relics of the past but vibrant, evolving communities that continue to adapt and thrive in the modern world. He highlights several examples of Native Americans who are making significant contributions in various fields while maintaining strong connections to their cultural heritage.

Revitalizing Indigenous Cuisine

One inspiring example is Sean Sherman, an Oglala Lakota chef based in Minneapolis. In 2014, Sherman founded The Sioux Chef, a business dedicated to reviving and promoting Indigenous cuisine. His approach involves:

1. Using only ingredients that were historically available to Native Americans before European contact
2. Rejecting colonial imports like sugar, pork, and chicken
3. Creating innovative dishes that blend traditional flavors with modern culinary techniques
4. Interviewing tribal elders to recover and preserve traditional recipes and food knowledge

Sherman's work, including his award-winning cookbook "The Sioux Chef's Indigenous Kitchen," has helped spark renewed interest in Native American culinary traditions and promote healthier eating habits in Indigenous communities.

Promoting Health and Wellness

Another area where Native Americans are making significant strides is in addressing health issues that have long plagued their communities. Chelsey Luger, a journalist of Ojibwe and Lakota descent, founded Well For Culture, a grassroots initiative aimed at promoting exercise and healthy eating within Indigenous communities.

Luger's work focuses on:

1. Combating high rates of obesity, diabetes, and alcoholism in Native American populations
2. Using social media to reach and engage Indigenous youth
3. Organizing fitness events in schools and communities
4. Sharing workout routines and healthy recipes tailored to Native American cultural contexts

Similarly, Sarah Howes, an artist of Ojibwe and Creek heritage, uses social media to organize running groups and promote physical fitness among her friends and acquaintances. These efforts demonstrate how Native Americans are harnessing modern tools to address longstanding health challenges in culturally relevant ways.

Cultural Preservation and Innovation

Many contemporary Native Americans are finding innovative ways to preserve and celebrate their cultural heritage while engaging with the modern world. Examples include:

1. Artists who blend traditional techniques with contemporary themes and materials
2. Musicians who incorporate Native languages and instruments into popular music genres
3. Filmmakers and writers who tell Indigenous stories for both Native and non-Native audiences
4. Educators who develop culturally responsive curricula for Native American students

These efforts reflect a growing recognition that Native American cultures are not static relics of the past but dynamic, evolving traditions that continue to shape and be shaped by the world around them.

The Impact of Social Media and Technology

The rise of social media and digital technologies has had a profound impact on Native American communities, offering new opportunities for connection, activism, and cultural expression.

Building Pan-Indian Connections

Social media platforms have allowed Native Americans from different tribes and regions to connect and share experiences in ways that were previously impossible. This has led to:

1. Increased awareness of issues affecting different Native communities
2. The rapid spread of information about protests, cultural events, and political actions
3. The formation of online support networks for Native American artists, entrepreneurs, and activists
4. Greater visibility for Native American voices in national and international conversations

Digital Activism

Social media has become a powerful tool for Native American activism, as seen in events like the Standing Rock protests against the Dakota Access Pipeline. Online platforms have enabled:

1. Real-time updates from protest sites
2. Crowdfunding campaigns to support activists and provide supplies
3. The rapid mobilization of supporters from across the country and around the world
4. Increased media attention on Native American issues

Cultural Preservation and Revitalization

Digital technologies are also playing a crucial role in preserving and revitalizing Native American languages and cultural practices:

1. Language learning apps and online courses make it easier for people to study endangered Indigenous languages
2. Digital archives allow for the preservation of oral histories, traditional songs, and cultural knowledge
3. Virtual reality and augmented reality technologies are being used to recreate historical sites and traditional practices
4. Social media platforms provide spaces for sharing and discussing cultural traditions, fostering intergenerational learning

These technological tools are helping Native American communities bridge the gap between traditional knowledge and modern life, ensuring that their cultural heritage remains vibrant and relevant for future generations.

Ongoing Challenges and Future Prospects

While Treuer's book emphasizes the resilience and achievements of Native Americans since Wounded Knee, it also acknowledges the significant challenges that continue to face Indigenous communities in the United States.

Persistent Inequalities

Despite progress in many areas, Native Americans still face disproportionate rates of:

1. Poverty and unemployment
2. Health issues, including diabetes, alcoholism, and mental health problems
3. Educational disparities and lower high school graduation rates
4. Inadequate housing and infrastructure on many reservations

Addressing these longstanding inequalities remains a crucial challenge for both Native communities and the broader American society.

Environmental Concerns

Many Native American communities are on the front lines of environmental issues, including:

1. The impacts of climate change on traditional lands and ways of life
2. Conflicts over resource extraction and energy development on or near tribal lands
3. Water rights and access to clean water
4. Preservation of sacred sites and culturally significant landscapes

These environmental challenges often intersect with questions of tribal sovereignty and economic development, creating complex dilemmas for Native American leaders and communities.

Cultural Identity and Assimilation

As Native Americans become increasingly integrated into mainstream American society, many communities grapple with questions of cultural identity and preservation:

1. How to maintain traditional languages and practices in a rapidly changing world
2. Balancing economic development with cultural values and environmental stewardship
3. Addressing the legacy of historical trauma while building resilience for the future
4. Navigating the complexities of mixed heritage and urban Native American experiences

Political Representation and Sovereignty

Native Americans continue to work towards greater political representation and the full recognition of tribal sovereignty:

1. Efforts to increase Native American voter participation and representation in local, state, and federal government
2. Ongoing legal battles over treaty rights and jurisdictional issues
3. Campaigns to change racist sports mascots and team names
4. Pushing for more accurate and respectful portrayals of Native Americans in media and education

Conclusion

David Treuer's "The Heartbeat of Wounded Knee" offers a powerful corrective to the notion that Native American history and culture ended with the massacre at Wounded Knee in 1890. Through a rich tapestry of historical research, personal stories, and cultural analysis, Treuer demonstrates that Native Americans have not only survived but have shown remarkable resilience, adaptability, and creativity in the face of tremendous challenges.

The book highlights the complex and often painful history of Native Americans in the 20th and early 21st centuries, from the era of forced assimilation and land allotment to the rise of activism in the 1960s and 70s, and the transformative impact of tribal gaming. Throughout this history, Native Americans have consistently fought to maintain their cultural identities and assert their rights as sovereign nations within the United States.

Treuer's work also shines a light on the vibrant and diverse reality of contemporary Native American life. From chefs revitalizing Indigenous cuisine to activists promoting health and wellness, and from artists blending traditional and modern forms to tech-savvy youth using social media to connect and organize, Native Americans are actively shaping their communities and their place in the broader American society.

While acknowledging the ongoing challenges faced by Native American communities – including persistent inequalities, environmental threats, and questions of cultural preservation – "The Heartbeat of Wounded Knee" ultimately presents a message of hope and resilience. It argues that Native American cultures are not relics of the past but living, evolving traditions that continue to adapt and thrive in the modern world.

By challenging popular misconceptions and presenting a more nuanced and complete picture of Native American history and contemporary life, Treuer's book invites readers to reconsider their understanding of Indigenous peoples and their place in American society. It serves as both a celebration of Native American resilience and a call to action for addressing the ongoing injustices and challenges facing Indigenous communities.

As we move further into the 21st century, the stories and insights shared in "The Heartbeat of Wounded Knee" offer valuable lessons for all Americans. They remind us of the importance of respecting cultural diversity, honoring historical treaties and obligations, and working towards a more just and inclusive society. Most importantly, they affirm that the heartbeat of Native America continues to pulse strongly, carrying the wisdom of ancient traditions into a future full of both challenges and possibilities.