The Heartbeat of Wounded Knee Summary

Native American history didn't end with the massacre at Wounded Knee – it's a living story of survival, resilience, and renewed cultural identity.

1. The Legacy of Wounded Knee

The massacre at Wounded Knee in 1890 is often misunderstood as the definitive end of Native American resistance and history. In reality, it became a symbol of Native suffering and resilience. Over 150 Miniconjou Lakota were killed during a brutal military action driven by fear of Native religious practices like the Ghost Dance.

The tragedy was instrumental in shaping public perception of Native Americans as a defeated and fading people. This stereotype contributed to centuries of neglect and discrimination, obscuring the thriving and diverse cultures that persisted. Dee Brown’s book Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee cemented this "ending" narrative, which Treuer challenges by documenting Native endurance and creativity.

This symbolic event, while devastating, set the stage for 20th-century Native movements. By viewing Wounded Knee as a turning point rather than an ending, we begin to understand the vibrant continuity of Native culture and history.

Examples

• The massacre killed around 150 Native people, many of them women and children.
• The Ghost Dance religious movement was perceived as a threat by the US government.
• Wounded Knee became a rallying cry during the American Indian Movement (AIM) in the 20th century.

2. Boarding Schools and Cultural Suppression

Native children were forcibly removed from their families and placed in boarding schools in a systematic effort to erase Indigenous cultures. These schools aimed to transform children into Euro-American citizens by suppressing their languages, traditions, and family ties.

Children were subjected to harsh rules banning the use of their Native languages and enforcing Western customs. Personal identity markers, like long hair for many tribes, were removed. This institutionalized cultural alienation left deep scars, separating generations from their heritage and creating lasting psychological and cultural damage.

Despite the pain, these schools unintentionally fostered pan-Indian identity. By bringing together children across tribes, they created a sense of collective Indigenous unity, which later became instrumental in struggles for Native rights.

Examples

• Lakota children mourned the cutting of their hair, a cultural act symbolizing mourning in their tradition.
• Mouth washing and beatings were common punishments for speaking Native languages.
• By the 1930s, a broader collective Native identity was emerging due to shared experiences in these schools.

3. The Loss of Native Land Through Allotment

The Dawes Act of 1887 marked a massive loss of Native land. The act divided communal tribal lands into individual plots, effectively dismantling traditional land ownership systems. What was left over was labeled "surplus" and sold to white settlers.

This policy destroyed tribal governance and sustainability. Many families, unable to farm poor soil or generate income, sold their plots out of necessity. By 1934, Native land holdings had shrunk by 66%, and poverty was rampant as once-thriving tribal systems collapsed under exploitation.

Acknowledging this damage, the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934 aimed to restore some lands and end allotments. But the losses were irreparable, leaving many tribes dispersed and economically devastated.

Examples

• Two-thirds of Native-owned land was lost by 1934 through allotment sales and fraud.
• Tribes in South Dakota were allocated land too barren for farming.
• The Indian Reorganization Act returned portions of lost lands to tribal ownership.

4. Military Service as a Form of Resilience

Native Americans served in both World Wars at higher rates than any other demographic in the United States. Despite facing systemic racism, these servicemen contributed significantly – both as infantry and as essential code talkers during wartime.

Some tribes even made formal declarations of war, exemplifying their belief in fighting against oppressive regimes like Nazi Germany. Native soldiers brought unparalleled skills, such as tracking and scouting, to the battlefield. After the wars, however, they returned to entrenched racism at home, fueling demands for equality.

This valorous military service showcased Indigenous adaptability and patriotism, setting a precedent for later activism and recognition.

Examples

• Choctaw soldiers became the first wartime "code talkers" using their language.
• Francis Pegahmagabow, an Ojibwe sniper, had 378 confirmed kills in World War I.
• The Iroquois Confederacy declared war on the Axis Powers during World War II.

5. Urbanization and the Birth of the American Indian Movement (AIM)

Post-World War II urbanization saw many Native Americans leave reservations for cities, where they encountered poor living conditions and systemic police brutality. Inspired by the civil rights movement, AIM was founded in 1968 to address these injustices.

AIM began by monitoring police interactions and documenting abuses. In 1972, they organized a cross-country caravan, culminating in the Bureau of Indian Affairs occupation. This activism brought national attention to Native rights, generating both controversy and awareness.

While criticized for its militant approach, AIM represented a resurgence in Indigenous political activism and created lasting change for Native communities.

Examples

• AIM’s caravan involved hundreds of activists by its arrival in Washington in 1972.
• The occupation of the Bureau of Indian Affairs generated headlines nationwide.
• AIM successfully drew attention to police harassment in urban Native neighborhoods.

6. Casino Revenue: A Double-Edged Sword

The Supreme Court’s 1976 ruling that states couldn’t tax reservation activities enabled many tribes to launch casinos. Although gaming generated substantial revenues, this wealth was unevenly distributed among tribes.

Some reservations with prime locations near urban centers prospered, building schools, hospitals and housing. Others, far from population hubs, didn’t experience similar benefits. Revenue disparities between tribal nations often created tension as well.

Casino success illuminated Native sovereignty and resourcefulness while highlighting systemic inequities among tribes.

Examples

• Seminole Tribe’s bingo hall in Florida pioneered Indian gaming.
• Casino-generated revenue rose to $26 billion by 2009.
• Reservations in remote areas, like South Dakota, saw minimal gains.

7. Native-Owned Businesses and Cultural Revival

Entrepreneurship is flourishing across Native communities. Many Native-owned businesses emphasize the revival and celebration of traditional practices, such as food preparation, art, and wellness.

Sean Sherman’s The Sioux Chef reintroduces Native ingredients to contemporary palates, rejecting European-influenced foods. Similarly, organizations like Well For Culture focus on improving community health through traditional recipes and fitness programs.

This rebirth of Indigenous business reflects a broader cultural and economic reinvigoration among Native peoples who are embracing their heritage and identity.

Examples

• The Sioux Chef creates innovative dishes using pre-contact Native ingredients.
• Well For Culture combats diabetes and obesity among Native populations.
• Modern Native artisans utilize social media to share and sell their work.

8. Social Media as a Tool for Unity and Progress

Social media platforms are proving transformative for Native Americans. Activists, artists, and community leaders are leveraging these digital tools to connect across distances, share cultural knowledge, and advocate for causes.

Fitness advocates like Chelsey Luger and Sarah Howes use platforms to promote health and wellness. Other individuals and organizations use these tools to advocate for land rights or combat stereotypes widely shared in the media.

These online connections forge stronger networks among Indigenous peoples and offer a stage to amplify their voices.

Examples

• Chelsey Luger’s Well For Culture uses Instagram and Facebook for outreach.
• Sarah Howes organizes running groups through social media platforms.
• Activists employ Twitter to mobilize support for pipeline protests.

9. Challenges and Rebirth in the 21st Century

Despite centuries of trauma, Native Americans are thriving in various fields, from politics and art to entrepreneurship and education. Traditional practices are being revived and adapted for modern times, ensuring their survival for future generations.

Young leaders inspire their communities while addressing modern issues like climate change and systemic inequality. Through education and advocacy, they are building a new narrative for Native resilience and empowerment.

The story of Native Americans today is one of triumph against the odds, ensuring their cultures continue to evolve and endure.

Examples

• Indigenous chefs and artists reinterpret and preserve cultural practices.
• Native youth advocate for social justice and climate protection.
• Education campaigns reclaim traditional knowledge systems.

Takeaways

1. Support Native-led businesses and initiatives to contribute to their economic and cultural empowerment.
2. Educate yourself and others about the ongoing history of Native Americans beyond the stereotypes.
3. Use social media to follow and amplify Native voices advocating for equality, culture, and environmental justice.