Introduction
Bill Bryson's "The Mother Tongue" is a fascinating exploration of the English language, its origins, evolution, and quirks. This book takes readers on a captivating journey through time, tracing the roots of the words we use every day and uncovering the rich tapestry of history woven into our language. Bryson's witty and engaging style makes this linguistic adventure accessible to all, offering insights into how English became the global language it is today.
The Origins of Language
The Indo-European Connection
Bryson begins by delving into the origins of language itself, focusing on the concept of a common ancestral language. He introduces us to Sir William Jones, an 18th-century English judge whose hobby of learning Sanskrit led to a groundbreaking discovery. Jones noticed striking similarities between Sanskrit and European languages, such as the word for "king" being "rex" in Latin and "raja" in Sanskrit.
This observation led Jones to propose that many classical languages, including Persian, Latin, Celtic, Sanskrit, and Greek, shared a common root. This theory gave birth to the field of historical linguistics and the concept of the Indo-European parent language.
Despite the lack of written records from the Stone Age (around 7000 BC) when Indo-European was spoken, scholars have been able to make educated guesses about the lives of its speakers. By comparing common words in descendant languages, they deduced that the Indo-Europeans likely lived in a cold climate (due to similar words for "snow" and "cold") and were initially inland dwellers (as there was no common word for "sea").
The Evolution of English
The English language as we know it today is the result of multiple invasions and conquests of the British Isles. Bryson takes us through these key evolutionary points:
The Angles and Saxons: Around 450 AD, these Germanic tribes migrated from northern Germany to Britain, displacing the Celts and laying the foundation for Old English.
The Viking Invasion: In 850 AD, Vikings from Scandinavia arrived in Britain, leading to a 30-year battle. The aftermath saw the establishment of the Danelaw, dividing the nation between the southern English and northern Vikings. This period introduced many Scandinavian words and place names into the English language.
The Norman Conquest: In 1066, the Normans (Vikings who had settled in northern France) invaded England. Their 300-year rule added over 10,000 words to the English language and created a two-tiered society with French-speaking rulers and English-speaking workers.
These invasions and migrations significantly shaped the English language, contributing to its rich vocabulary and complex structure.
The Growth and Change of English
Word Evolution and Creation
Bryson highlights how the English language has continuously evolved, with words changing meanings or gaining new ones over time. For example, "manufacture" once meant making something by hand but now refers to machine-made products. Similarly, "brave" was once closer in meaning to "cowardly" but has since taken on its current positive connotation.
The author also explores how new words are added to the language. He notes that the period between 1500 and 1650 was particularly fruitful, with over 10,000 new words introduced. William Shakespeare alone is credited with coining more than 1,000 words, including "leapfrog," "excellent," "lonely," and "majestic."
Bryson explains various methods of word creation:
- Adding or subtracting prefixes and suffixes
- Simplifying and shortening longer words
- Adapting words from other languages
- Creating compound words
New World, New Words
The discovery and settlement of the Americas brought about a need for new words to describe unfamiliar plants, animals, and concepts. Bryson details how settlers adopted words from Native American languages, such as "hickory" from the Algonquin "pawcohiccora," and "squash," "raccoon," and "hammock" from various other tribes.
Spanish, Dutch, and French settlers also contributed words like "mustang," "canyon," "landscape," and "prairie." Compound words like "rattlesnake," "eggplant," and "grasshopper" were created to vividly describe new discoveries.
Interestingly, Bryson reveals that the name "America" itself resulted from a misunderstanding. It was derived from the name of Italian explorer Amerigo Vespucci, who never actually set foot in North America. A German mapmaker, believing Vespucci had discovered the entire continent, named it "Americus Vespucius" in his honor.
The Personal Side of Language
Surnames and Their Stories
Bryson dedicates a section to exploring the origins and meanings of surnames, showing how they can reveal information about our ancestors' occupations, places of residence, or personal characteristics.
He explains that surnames like Smith, Schmidt, Herrero, Kovacs, and Ferraro likely indicate that an ancestor worked as a metalsmith. Place-based surnames, such as Preston or London, reveal where ancestors lived. Descriptive nicknames like Armstrong or Tolstoy ("fat" in Russian) became lasting family names.
Patronymics, such as Peterson or Johnson, indicate lineage, while trade names like Baker or Fletcher (arrow-maker) point to ancestral professions. Bryson notes that the standardization of surnames in England began in 1413 with the introduction of legal documentation requirements.
The Shifting Nature of Profanity
One of the most intriguing aspects of language evolution that Bryson explores is how words can shift from being perfectly acceptable to profane, or vice versa, over time. He points out that many of today's most offensive swear words were once used casually in conversation and writing.
For example, before the 18th century, a street in London known for its prostitutes was openly called "Gropecuntlane." Conversely, words we now consider harmless, like "puppy," could have been insulting in the 19th century.
Bryson also discusses how attitudes towards blasphemous language have changed. In 17th-century England, swearing was illegal, with fines for using words like "Jesus" or "hell," and even seemingly innocuous phrases like "upon my life." The penalties became even more severe over time, with swearing at one's parents potentially resulting in a death sentence.
The author highlights the extreme prudishness of 19th-century England and America, where censors attempted to sanitize literature by removing swear words, even from Shakespeare's works. In America, even mentioning a woman's legs was considered a social faux pas, leading to the creation of euphemisms like "white meat" for chicken breast.
The Global Reach of English
English as a World Language
Bryson explores how English has become a global language, influencing and being influenced by other tongues around the world. He notes that while it's common to hear English words in other European languages today, historically, English was more often the adopter of foreign words.
The author attributes the spread of English to various factors, including British colonialism, the rise of American economic and cultural influence, and the language's inherent flexibility and adaptability. He points out that English has borrowed words from over 350 languages, making it one of the most diverse and expansive languages in the world.
English Variants and Dialects
Bryson delves into the various forms of English spoken around the world, from British and American English to Australian, Canadian, and Indian English. He explores how these variants developed unique vocabularies, pronunciations, and grammatical structures while maintaining mutual intelligibility.
The author also discusses regional dialects within English-speaking countries, highlighting how they contribute to the richness and diversity of the language. He notes that these dialects often preserve older forms of English or incorporate local influences, creating a linguistic tapestry that reflects the history and culture of each region.
The Quirks and Challenges of English
Spelling and Pronunciation
One of the most notorious aspects of English that Bryson addresses is its often confusing and inconsistent spelling system. He explains how historical changes in pronunciation, combined with the influence of other languages and arbitrary spelling reforms, have resulted in a writing system that often bears little resemblance to spoken English.
The author provides numerous examples of words with similar spellings but different pronunciations (like "cough," "bough," and "through") and words with similar pronunciations but different spellings (like "there," "their," and "they're"). He also explores the challenges this system poses for learners and the various attempts at spelling reform throughout history.
Grammar and Usage
Bryson discusses the complexities of English grammar, including its many irregular verbs, confusing tenses, and idiomatic expressions. He explores how these features developed over time and how they continue to evolve in modern usage.
The author also addresses common grammar debates and usage controversies, such as the split infinitive, ending sentences with prepositions, and the use of "whom." He takes a descriptive rather than prescriptive approach, emphasizing how language changes naturally over time and how what was once considered incorrect can become standard usage.
The Future of English
Ongoing Evolution
In the final sections of the book, Bryson speculates on the future of the English language. He notes that, like all living languages, English continues to evolve, with new words being added, old words falling out of use, and meanings shifting over time.
The author discusses the impact of technology and globalization on the language, including the rise of internet slang, text speak, and the increasing influence of non-native English speakers on the language's development. He suggests that these factors may lead to further diversification of English, with new dialects and variants emerging around the world.
Preserving Linguistic Diversity
While celebrating the global reach of English, Bryson also expresses concern about the potential loss of linguistic diversity as smaller languages are overshadowed by more dominant ones. He emphasizes the importance of preserving endangered languages and dialects, as they often contain unique ways of perceiving and describing the world.
Conclusion
Bill Bryson's "The Mother Tongue" offers a comprehensive and entertaining exploration of the English language's history, evolution, and quirks. Through his engaging narrative, readers gain a deeper appreciation for the complexity and richness of the language we use every day.
The book highlights how English has been shaped by historical events, cultural exchanges, and the creativity of its speakers. From its Indo-European roots to its current status as a global lingua franca, English has demonstrated remarkable resilience and adaptability.
Bryson's work reminds us that language is not just a tool for communication but a living, breathing entity that reflects the history, culture, and collective imagination of its speakers. As we continue to use and shape English in the 21st century, we are part of an ongoing linguistic journey that stretches back thousands of years and will continue long into the future.
"The Mother Tongue" encourages readers to approach language with curiosity and wonder, to explore the stories behind the words we use, and to appreciate the ever-changing nature of English. It serves as a testament to the power of language to connect us across time and space, and to the enduring human drive to communicate, create, and understand our world through words.