Introduction
Tom Segev's "The Seventh Million" is a powerful exploration of how the Holocaust has shaped Israeli identity, politics, and culture. The book delves into the complex and often painful relationship between Israel and the memory of the six million Jews who perished in the Holocaust. Segev examines how the "seventh million" – the Jewish population of Israel, including both those who lived in Palestine before the war and the survivors who immigrated afterward – have grappled with the legacy of this immense tragedy.
Through meticulous research and compelling storytelling, Segev takes readers on a journey through Israel's history, from the rise of Nazi Germany to the present day. He explores the tensions, debates, and controversies that have shaped Israel's collective memory of the Holocaust and its impact on the nation's development.
The Rise of Nazi Germany and the Transfer Agreement
In 1933, the Nazis came to power in Germany, marking a turning point in history that would have profound consequences for the Jewish people. As the situation for German Jews became increasingly dire, Zionist leaders saw an opportunity to bring more Jews to Palestine and strengthen the foundation for a future Jewish state.
Surprisingly, the interests of the Nazis and the Zionists temporarily aligned. The Nazis wanted to rid Germany of its Jewish population, while the Zionists sought to bring more Jews to Palestine. This led to the creation of the "transfer agreement," also known as Haavara, between the Nazi government and the Jewish Agency in Palestine.
Under this agreement, German Jews who emigrated to Palestine were allowed to take a significant portion of their wealth with them. They could transfer $4,000 in cash and ship goods worth $5,000 to Palestine – a considerable sum at the time. While this arrangement helped some Jews escape Nazi Germany with their assets, it was not without controversy.
The arrival of German Jewish immigrants in Palestine created tension within the existing Jewish community. Many of these newcomers were not Zionists but refugees fleeing persecution. They often struggled to adapt to the Hebrew culture and language that the Zionist settlers were working to establish.
The existing Jewish community in Palestine had mixed feelings about the influx of German Jews. While they recognized the need to help their fellow Jews escape Nazi persecution, many worried about the impact of this immigration on their efforts to build a new country. Some, like Eliahu Dobkin of the Jewish Agency, even referred to the German Jewish refugees as "undesirable human material," preferring instead young, single immigrants who could contribute more readily to the physical labor of nation-building.
Denial and Disbelief: Palestine's Response to the Holocaust
As news of the systematic extermination of European Jews began to reach Palestine during World War II, the response of the Jewish community there was complex and often inadequate. Many found it difficult to comprehend the full scale of the atrocities being committed against their fellow Jews in Europe.
In 1942, when reports of mass killings in Ukraine first appeared in the Israeli newspaper Ha'aretz, the story was relegated to page two, overshadowed by local news such as a Jewish soccer team's victory in Damascus. This placement reflected a broader tendency to downplay or disbelieve the horrific reports coming from Europe.
Even when the Jewish Agency officially announced the existence of a massive plan to exterminate European Jews, the initial shock and outrage gradually gave way to a kind of numbness. News of the Holocaust began to appear less prominently in newspapers, pushed further from the front pages as time went on.
Several factors contributed to this apparent lack of urgency:
Historical context: Jews had long been victims of persecution and pogroms in Europe. To some extent, news of violence against Jews, while tragic, did not seem entirely out of the ordinary.
Focus on nation-building: The Jewish community in Palestine was preoccupied with the monumental task of building the foundations for a future state. This focus on the future sometimes came at the expense of fully engaging with the present crisis.
Sense of helplessness: Many felt there was little they could do to save European Jews from their fate, leading to a kind of resigned acceptance.
Limited resources: While some funds were allocated to rescue efforts, far more was spent on land purchases and settlement construction in Palestine. The assumption was that building a strong Jewish homeland was the best long-term strategy for ensuring Jewish survival.
This period of denial and disbelief would later contribute to a collective sense of guilt among Israeli Jews, who felt they had not done enough to save their European brethren during their darkest hour.
The Aftermath: Trauma, Guilt, and Calls for Revenge
As World War II came to an end and the full extent of the Holocaust became known, the Jewish community in Palestine was overwhelmed by shock, grief, and guilt. Many felt they had failed their European brethren by not doing more to save them from Nazi persecution.
In the wake of this collective trauma, some Holocaust survivors called for revenge against the German people. One of the most dramatic examples of this desire for vengeance was the plan conceived by Abba Kovner, a young Holocaust survivor who arrived in Palestine with a bold and terrible mission.
Kovner gathered a group of fellow survivors, calling themselves the Nakam (Hebrew for "revenge"), and plotted to poison the water supply of several West German cities. Their goal was to kill six million Germans – a number equal to the Jewish victims of the Holocaust – justifying their plan with the biblical principle of "an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth."
While the Nakam group did manage to assassinate a few former SS officers, their grand scheme of mass poisoning never came to fruition. The Jewish Agency, focused on the goal of establishing a Jewish state, did not support such a large-scale act of revenge, recognizing that it would likely harm their cause more than help it.
For many Holocaust survivors who had made their way to Palestine, the desire for revenge was overshadowed by the need to simply survive and rebuild their shattered lives. These individuals faced enormous psychological challenges as they tried to adjust to life in a new land:
Trauma: Survivors suffered from intense anxiety, nightmares, depression, and mood swings. The horrors they had witnessed and experienced left deep emotional scars.
Survivor's guilt: Many grappled with feelings of guilt for having survived while their loved ones perished.
Difficulty forming relationships: The trauma of the Holocaust made it challenging for many survivors to trust others and form close bonds.
Struggle to adapt: Some survivors found it difficult to integrate into the communal lifestyle of the kibbutzim (collective settlements) in Palestine. The structured, collective nature of these communities sometimes reminded them of the concentration camps they had escaped.
Need for privacy: Many survivors desired their own space to process their experiences and deal with their personal struggles, rather than immediately immersing themselves in the collective project of nation-building.
The arrival of these traumatized survivors in Palestine created a complex dynamic within the Jewish community. While there was a desire to help and support these newcomers, there was also a tension between the survivors' need to process their past and the Zionist focus on building a new future.
Reparations and Reconciliation: Israel's Controversial Relationship with Germany
In the years following World War II and the establishment of the State of Israel, the country faced a difficult decision regarding its relationship with Germany. Many Israelis called for a complete boycott of Germany, viewing any interaction with the country as a betrayal of the Holocaust victims' memory.
However, practical considerations made such a boycott challenging to maintain. Israel needed to engage with the international community, including Germany, to join organizations like the United Nations. Moreover, the fledgling state was in dire need of financial resources to support its development and absorb the influx of Jewish refugees.
In December 1951, the Israeli government made the controversial decision to enter into reparations negotiations with Germany. This decision sparked intense debate and opposition within Israel. Many argued that accepting money from Germany was tantamount to taking blood money from murderers. The issue was so contentious that it led to protests and riots, with some demonstrators even throwing stones at the Knesset (Israeli parliament) building during debates on the matter.
Despite the fierce opposition, the Israeli government proceeded with the negotiations, and in 1952, an agreement was reached. The German government agreed to pay reparations of approximately $820 million to Israel, with 70% of the funds allocated for goods made in Germany and 30% for fuel purchases.
The impact of these reparations on Israel's economy was significant:
Economic growth: Over the 12-year payment period, Israel's gross national product tripled. About 15% of this growth could be directly attributed to investments made with the reparation money.
Job creation: The reparations funds helped create an estimated 45,000 jobs in Israel.
Infrastructure development: The money was used to purchase machinery, raw materials, and other goods necessary for building up Israel's infrastructure and industry.
While the reparations agreement proved beneficial for Israel's economic development, it remained a source of moral and emotional conflict for many Israelis. The decision to accept German money was seen by some as a necessary pragmatic choice, while others viewed it as a betrayal of the Holocaust victims' memory.
Over time, the reparations payments helped to forge a better relationship between Israel and Germany. This gradual reconciliation process, however, was not without its challenges and controversies.
Military Ties and Nazi Collaborators: Ongoing Controversies
As Israel faced military threats from neighboring Arab countries in the 1950s, it found itself in the uncomfortable position of seeking military equipment from Germany. This development further strained the already complex relationship between the two nations.
The military connections between Israel and Germany became a highly contentious issue among Israelis. In 1959, when the German magazine Der Spiegel reported that Israel was not only buying arms from Germany but also selling weapons to the country, it sparked a heated debate.
Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion defended these military ties, arguing that they were necessary for Israel's security and economic interests. He claimed that selling arms to Germany would help secure the country's commitment to supply weapons to Israel in return. Additionally, the foreign currency earned from these sales was crucial for Israel's economy.
However, many Israelis found the idea of providing weapons to German soldiers morally reprehensible, given that some of these soldiers may have been involved in the murder of Jews during the Holocaust. The debate highlighted the ongoing tension between pragmatic national interests and the moral weight of historical memory.
Another source of controversy during this period was the issue of Jewish collaboration with the Nazi regime. The most notable case was that of Rudolf Kastner, who had served as the spokesman for the Israeli Ministry of Commerce and Industry.
During the war, Kastner had been the head of the Aid and Rescue Committee in Hungary. In this role, he had negotiated with Adolf Eichmann, a high-ranking SS officer, to allow 1,684 Jews to leave for Switzerland in exchange for a cash payment. This group became known as the passengers of the "Kastner train."
While Kastner's actions saved lives, they also sparked intense debate about the ethics of negotiating with the Nazis and the question of who was chosen to be saved. Kastner was accused of collaborating with the Nazis and sacrificing the majority of Hungarian Jews to save a select few.
The controversy culminated in a trial where a judge declared that Kastner had "sold his soul to the devil." In 1957, Kastner was assassinated by right-wing Jewish activists who viewed him as a traitor.
The Kastner affair highlighted the complex moral quandaries faced by Jews during the Holocaust and the difficulties in judging their actions from the perspective of hindsight. It also demonstrated how the trauma of the Holocaust continued to influence Israeli society and politics long after the war had ended.
The Eichmann Trial: A Turning Point in Holocaust Awareness
One of the most significant events in Israel's confrontation with the Holocaust was the capture and trial of Adolf Eichmann, a high-ranking Nazi official who had played a crucial role in organizing the transportation of Jews to death camps.
On May 11, 1960, Mossad agents kidnapped Eichmann in Buenos Aires, Argentina, where he had been living under an assumed name. They smuggled him out of the country and brought him to Israel to stand trial for his crimes against the Jewish people.
The trial, which began in 1961, became a pivotal moment in Israel's history and had a profound impact on the country's collective memory of the Holocaust. For many Israelis, it was the first time they heard detailed, firsthand accounts of the atrocities committed during the Holocaust.
Key aspects of the Eichmann trial included:
Public engagement: Much of the trial was broadcast live on radio, allowing people across Israel to follow the proceedings. This created a shared national experience, with people listening in homes, offices, cafes, and public spaces.
Survivor testimonies: The trial provided a platform for Holocaust survivors to share their experiences publicly, often for the first time. This helped to break the silence that had surrounded many survivors' stories and brought the reality of the Holocaust into sharp focus for many Israelis.
National catharsis: The trial served as a form of "national group therapy," giving voice to the victims and allowing the country to collectively process the trauma of the Holocaust.
Legal precedent: The trial raised important questions about jurisdiction, the nature of crimes against humanity, and the concept of following orders as a defense for war crimes.
Eichmann pleaded not guilty to the charges, claiming that he was merely following orders and that he had no blood on his hands. Despite his defense, Eichmann was found guilty of crimes against the Jewish people and crimes against humanity. He was sentenced to death and executed in 1962, the only person to have ever been executed by the State of Israel.
While the trial was widely seen as a necessary act of justice, it also attracted criticism. Philosopher Hannah Arendt, who covered the trial for The New Yorker, raised several controversial points:
She questioned the impartiality of Jewish judges in determining Eichmann's guilt or innocence.
Arendt argued that Eichmann's actions should be classified as crimes against humanity rather than specifically against the Jewish people, as the distinction between Jews and other humans was precisely what the Nazis had used to justify their crimes.
She introduced the concept of the "banality of evil," suggesting that Eichmann was not a monster but rather an ordinary man who had committed extraordinary crimes through his unthinking obedience to authority.
Despite these criticisms, the Eichmann trial marked a turning point in Israel's relationship with the Holocaust. It brought the experiences of survivors into the public consciousness and helped to shape the way Israel would remember and memorialize the Holocaust in the years to come.
The Shadow of the Holocaust: Israel's Security Concerns and Treatment of Arabs
The trauma of the Holocaust cast a long shadow over Israeli society, influencing the country's perception of threats and its treatment of its Arab neighbors and citizens.
In the 1960s, Israel lived in a state of perpetual fear, driven by the hostile rhetoric and actions of its Arab neighbors. The memory of the Holocaust made many Israelis hyper-vigilant about potential threats to their existence. This fear was exacerbated by events such as Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser's military parade in Cairo on July 21, 1962, which featured ground-to-ground missiles.
The rhetoric used by some Arab leaders, threatening to "exterminate Israel," drew parallels with Nazi Germany in the minds of many Israelis. This comparison between Arab leaders and Hitler fueled a genuine belief among many Israelis that they faced the possibility of genocide if they were to lose a war against their Arab neighbors.
This existential fear partly motivated Israel's development of nuclear capabilities. In the late 1960s, Time magazine reported that Israel was constructing nuclear weapons, a move that can be seen as a response to the perceived existential threat from its neighbors.
The Six-Day War in 1967 marked a turning point in Israel's relationship with its Arab neighbors and the Palestinian population. In just six days, Israel conquered vast territories, including the Gaza Strip and the West Bank – areas it continues to occupy to this day.
The occupation of these territories led to the subjugation of the Arab civilians living there, creating a new set of moral and political challenges for Israel. The treatment of Arabs, both in the occupied territories and within Israel proper, became increasingly problematic in the following decades.
By the 1980s, racism against Arabs had become a significant issue in Israeli society. Some examples of this include:
The rise of extremist politicians: In 1984, about 25,000 Israelis voted for Rabbi Meir Kahane, who advocated for the expulsion of Arab citizens from Israel and the occupied territories.
Calls for segregation: Kahane and his followers demanded the banning of all contact between Jews and Arabs, even proposing separate beaches for Jews and non-Jews.
Violence and hate speech: There were incidents of young Israelis attacking Arabs, and chants of "Death to the Arabs" became disturbingly common, echoing the Nazi slogan "Death to the Jews."
This treatment of Arabs stood in stark contrast to the lessons many hoped would be learned from the Holocaust. The oppression of a minority group and the use of dehumanizing language eerily mirrored some of the early stages of the very tragedy that had befallen the Jewish people in Europe.
The situation highlighted a painful irony: a nation born in the aftermath of genocide was now grappling with its own treatment of a minority population. This contradiction became a source of soul-searching and debate within Israeli society, with some arguing that the lessons of the Holocaust should make Israel more empathetic to the plight of others, while others saw the harsh treatment of Arabs as necessary for Israel's security and survival.
Memorializing the Holocaust: Israel's Evolving Approach
As Israel grappled with the legacy of the Holocaust, the question of how to memorialize this immense tragedy became a central concern. Over the years, Israel developed a unique Holocaust memorial culture that has become an integral part of the nation's identity.
In 1951, the Knesset made a significant decision by establishing the 27th day of Nissan (the first month in the Jewish calendar) as Holocaust and Ghetto Rebellion Memorial Day. This annual day of remembrance has since become a solemn and unifying event in Israeli society.
On this day, Israel essentially comes to a standstill:
Public spaces: Places of leisure, including movie theaters and coffee shops, are closed.
Media: National radio and television stations broadcast content that creates an atmosphere of mourning. Radio programs feature testimonials from Holocaust survivors and discussions interspersed with somber music. Television news broadcasts air without their usual musical accompaniment, and anchors refrain from saying "Good evening" to viewers.
Programming: Instead of regular shows, television stations air films and documentaries about the Holocaust.
Print media: Newspapers publish poems and reflections on the history and culture of Holocaust memory.
This national day of remembrance serves as a powerful tool for collective memory, ensuring that each generation of Israelis engages with the history and significance of the Holocaust.
However, memorializing the Holocaust went beyond this annual observance. Israel also grappled with how to teach future generations about this dark chapter in Jewish history. It wasn't until 1980 that Holocaust studies became a standard requirement in all Israeli schools.
Since the early 1980s, the Holocaust has become a significant part of the Israeli education system:
Curriculum integration: The subject is taught in both elementary and secondary schools, meaning Israeli students study the Holocaust multiple times throughout their education.
Examination emphasis: Questions about the Holocaust make up about 20% of the total score on the high school diploma examination for history.
Educational trips: Many Israeli high school students participate in organized trips to Nazi concentration camps in Europe, including Auschwitz. These emotionally charged journeys serve as powerful, experiential lessons about the Holocaust.
The author describes accompanying one such student group on their trip to the concentration camps. He observed how deeply affected the students were by the experience, with many breaking down emotionally at various points during the journey. By the time they reached Auschwitz, as one student put it, they had "no tears left."
These educational initiatives reflect Israel's commitment to ensuring that the memory of the Holocaust is preserved and passed on to future generations. However, they also raise questions about the psychological impact of immersing young people so deeply in this traumatic history.
The evolution of Israel's Holocaust memorial culture demonstrates the country's ongoing struggle to find appropriate ways to honor the victims, educate future generations, and integrate this painful history into the national identity. It's a process that continues to shape Israeli society and its relationship with the past.
Conclusion: The Ongoing Impact of the Holocaust on Israeli Identity
Tom Segev's "The Seventh Million" provides a comprehensive and nuanced exploration of how the Holocaust has shaped Israeli society, politics, and culture. Through his detailed examination of Israel's history, from the rise of Nazi Germany to the present day, several key themes emerge:
The complex relationship between Zionism and the Holocaust: While the Holocaust ultimately strengthened the case for a Jewish state, the early Zionist movement's response to the plight of European Jews was not always straightforward or adequate.
The challenges of absorbing Holocaust survivors: The arrival of traumatized survivors in Palestine and later Israel created tensions and forced the young nation to grapple with how to integrate these newcomers while pursuing its nation-building goals.
The moral dilemmas of statehood: Israel's dealings with Germany, from reparations negotiations to military ties, highlighted the difficult balance between pragmatic national interests and moral considerations rooted in historical memory.
The impact on security perceptions: The trauma of the Holocaust has profoundly influenced Israel's approach to security, sometimes leading to a siege mentality and affecting its treatment of Arab neighbors and citizens.
The evolution of Holocaust memory: Israel has developed a unique memorial culture, integrating remembrance of the Holocaust into national observances, education, and collective identity.
Ongoing debates and controversies: From the Kastner affair to the Eichmann trial, Israel has continually wrestled with difficult questions about collaboration, justice, and how to appropriately remember and learn from the past.
Segev's work illustrates that the Holocaust remains a living, evolving force in Israeli society. Its impact is not confined to history books or memorial sites but continues to shape policy decisions, social attitudes, and national identity.
The book challenges readers to consider how a nation built in the aftermath of such immense tragedy can honor the memory of the victims while also moving forward and addressing contemporary challenges. It raises important questions about the responsibilities that come with being the self-proclaimed guardians of Holocaust memory and how this role influences Israel's actions on the world stage.
Ultimately, "The Seventh Million" demonstrates that Israel's relationship with the Holocaust is not static but continues to evolve. As new generations of Israelis emerge, further removed from the direct experience of the Holocaust, the country faces ongoing questions about how to preserve this memory while also addressing current realities and building for the future.
Segev's work serves as a crucial contribution to understanding not just Israel's past, but its present and future as well. It reminds us that the echoes of history continue to resonate, shaping the lives of millions and influencing the course of nations long after the events themselves have passed.