The Square and the Tower

History isn’t just a tale of kings and emperors; networks—hidden, interconnected, and often disruptive—have shaped the fate of civilizations.

1. Networks and Hierarchies: A Tug of War Shaping History

Networks and hierarchies have coexisted throughout history, each influencing human development in their own way. Hierarchies, like monarchies and religious institutions, often impose order top-down, while networks disperse power and encourage grassroots change. The interplay between these structures has resulted in societal shifts and revolutions.

For example, eighteenth-century Paris became a center for radical thought due to its vibrant salon culture. These gatherings brought together people from different social, intellectual, and political backgrounds who formed networks to exchange groundbreaking ideas. In contrast, hierarchies like monarchies sought to suppress such activities to maintain control.

Over time, networks often disrupted hierarchies by introducing fluidity. While kings and emperors were at the top of rigid pyramids, they often faced challenges from networks—like rebellious traders or intellectual circles—seeking to upend their power structures.

Examples

• Eighteenth-century Parisian salons fostered the French Revolution.
• Networks of Bolsheviks in Russia toppled the czar’s hierarchy.
• Modern-day communication tools like Twitter challenge traditional media hierarchies.

2. Why Centrality Defines Influence in Networks

Not all connections in a network are equal. Central nodes, which link the most people, wield the most influence. These nodes can amplify ideas, coordinate movements, and dominate flow within networks. Centrality—whether through direct ties or the ability to broker connections—determines influence.

Take Joseph Stalin’s ascent to power. Stalin maintained a high level of closeness centrality by being the only member of all three major institutions within the Communist Party. This strategic position allowed him to control the flow of information and outmaneuver his rivals, consolidating his power over the Soviet Union.

Weak ties between different networks often serve as bridges, fostering innovation and collaboration. For example, Enlightenment salon hosts played the role of brokers, connecting revolutionaries, scientists, and thinkers who otherwise might not have met.

Examples

• Stalin exploited centrality within Communist institutions to dominate.
• Letter exchanges between Voltaire and other philosophers spread Enlightenment ideas.
• Modern-day LinkedIn connections often uncover opportunities across industries.

3. The Printing Press Revolutionized Information Networks

The invention of Johannes Gutenberg’s printing press in the fifteenth century marked the dawn of a new era for information dissemination. By making books affordable and accessible, it sparked an informational network capable of spreading ideas quickly and widely.

The Reformation demonstrates this transformation. Martin Luther’s criticism of the Catholic Church traveled across Europe with unprecedented speed due to print technology. Suddenly, ordinary people had access to his radical ideas, and the Protestant movement rapidly gained a foothold. The sheer volume of printed materials (over 5,000 editions of Luther’s works) changed the religious landscape of Europe.

This network wasn’t confined to religion. Scientific breakthroughs by Isaac Newton and others also reached broader, literate audiences, enabling a dialogue that propelled the Scientific Revolution forward.

Examples

• Martin Luther’s theses spread rapidly to various German cities via print.
• Printing lowered book production costs, making knowledge accessible to all.
• Scientific advancements gained momentum through widespread dissemination of research.

4. The Enlightenment and Revolutions: Power of Networked Collaboration

The Enlightenment was fueled by networks of intellectuals, writers, and politicians exchanging groundbreaking ideas about liberty, equality, and governance. By connecting these thinkers, networks laid the groundwork for political revolutions in both America and France.

In colonial America, figures like Paul Revere and Samuel Adams connected nationalist movements across regions. These figures acted as brokers, linking disparate revolutionary groups into a united force that ultimately challenged British hierarchy. Similarly, the French Revolution was born in salons where Enlightenment discussions mixed with emergent republican ideals.

The outcomes varied. While America’s Revolution gave birth to a lasting democracy, France’s hierarchical traditions led to chaos and the rise of Napoleon's empire. Yet both arise from networks successfully mobilizing people for change.

Examples

• Paul Revere’s role as a connector fostered collaboration among groups in Boston.
• Voltaire and Rousseau corresponded with dozens of contemporaries, spreading revolutionary ideas.
• The educated elite of colonial and revolutionary France shared Enlightenment ideals in salons.

5. Britain's Empire: Global Networks Meet Hierarchies

The British Empire climbed to prominence not just through brute force but by adopting networks into its hierarchical system, especially in colonized regions. By allowing local leaders to govern on Britain’s behalf, colonial administrators exploited traditional networks to manage vast territories.

This strategy, called “indirect rule,” simultaneously upheld existing hierarchies while linking them into a broader imperial framework. The building of railroads, telegraph systems, and shipping infrastructure further connected these outposts, deepening control through communication networks.

These technologies also enabled globalization—British shipping innovations and interconnected port cities facilitated the worldwide movement of people and goods, laying the groundwork for today’s globalized trade systems.

Examples

• Indirect rule in British colonies blended local hierarchies into the empire’s governance.
• Indian railroads enabled resource extraction and troop movement during colonial rule.
• Transatlantic cable installations revolutionized trade and communication.

6. Rising Ideologies as Networks: Socialism and Fascism

Both socialism and fascism surfaced as powerful networks in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Socialists like Lenin relied on tightly-knit networks of activists to bring about the Russian Revolution. Using communication tools like pamphlets and clandestine meetings, these networks spread anti-Tsarist sentiment.

Similarly, the Nazi movement exploited Germany’s rich associational culture. As these networks grew, powerful hierarchies emerged, with Lenin and Hitler imposing strict top-down control over once-decentralized ideologies.

Once these networks gained power, however, they reversed themselves into rigid hierarchies. The Bolsheviks under Stalin centralized control to suppress dissent, while Nazis’ hierarchy relied on mass surveillance to keep citizens compliant.

Examples

• The Bolsheviks’ socialist network rapidly mobilized in Russia during 1917.
• Hitler’s Nazi network leveraged Germany's clubs and social associations for growth.
• Stalin’s Soviet Union became an inflexible hierarchy fueled by terror.

7. Social Media: The New Network Revolution

Modern social media platforms like Twitter and Facebook mirror the disruptive power of previous information networks. These platforms have revolutionized how ideas spread, often challenging entrenched hierarchies in politics and society.

Movements such as the Arab Spring used platforms like Twitter to organize and amplify dissent against authoritarian regimes. These spontaneous, decentralized protests gained steam, connecting people across regions. However, the same tools also empower groups like ISIS, which use social media to spread ideology and recruit globally.

Social media algorithms, designed to maximize engagement, exacerbate polarization by creating echo chambers. This influence was seen in the Brexit referendum and Donald Trump’s election, both driven by targeted political messaging to specific online audiences.

Examples

• Twitter played a critical role in mobilizing protests during the Arab Spring.
• Facebook’s algorithms helped spread pro-Brexit ads to undecided voters.
• ISIS used online networks to inspire and organize global supporters.

8. Networks vs. Hierarchies: Learning from 21st-Century Politics

The 2016 U.S. presidential election and Brexit referendum showcased how networks can disrupt political hierarchies. Trump’s Twitter dominance, combined with appeals designed to spark viral attention, amplified his message far beyond traditional campaign limits.

Political strategists like Dominic Cummings used analytics to pinpoint voters susceptible to targeted messaging. These social media-centric campaigns appealed to emotions, creating new political ecosystems outside traditional hierarchies.

This shift has led to growing debates over regulating social networks to curb misinformation and manipulation, while recognizing their potential power to challenge stagnated hierarchies.

Examples

• Donald Trump consistently outperformed Hillary Clinton on Twitter engagement.
• Pro-Brexit campaigns leveraged targeted Facebook ads to rally specific voter blocs.
• Russian troll networks interfered in elections to destabilize opposing nations.

9. The Need for Regulated Networks in an Uncertain Future

The disordered emergence of online networks mirrors the early stages of revolutionary technologies like the printing press. Governments around the world are struggling to regulate these new platforms, which can not only inspire positive change but also spread division and misinformation.

Some scholars suggest looking to the peace-centric balance of the nineteenth-century pentarchy system as a model. Regulated cooperation among nations or corporations may help govern the sprawling, unmapped territory of cyberspace.

Without such reconciliation between networks and hierarchies, today’s unprecedented interconnectedness could lead to chaos rather than progress.

Examples

• Technology monopolies such as Facebook and Google dominate digital networks.
• Regulatory gaps leave online platforms vulnerable to extremist propaganda.
• The pentarchy model mitigated wars in Europe during the 1800s.

Takeaways

1. Understand the hidden networks in your professional and social life, focusing your efforts on building more meaningful connections with central players.
2. Engage critically with online platforms, questioning the authenticity of viral content and expanding connections beyond echo chambers of like-minded individuals.
3. Advocate for or support structured regulations over emerging technologies to strike better balances between innovation, freedom, and security.