The Roman Empire was one of the largest and most influential empires in world history. At its height, it stretched from Britain to North Africa and from Spain to the Middle East. For centuries, this vast territory was ruled by a single man - the Roman emperor.
In "The Twelve Caesars," the Roman historian Suetonius provides vivid portraits of the first twelve men to hold this immense power. From the brilliant but ill-fated Julius Caesar to the cruel and unstable Domitian, Suetonius offers an intimate look at the personalities, accomplishments, and flaws of Rome's rulers during a critical period in the empire's history.
This book gives us a fascinating glimpse into life at the very top of Roman society. We see how absolute power shaped (and often corrupted) these men, the intrigues and violence of imperial politics, and the impact an emperor's character could have on millions of people. Through colorful anecdotes and revealing details, Suetonius brings these long-dead rulers to life, showing us their virtues and vices, their public personas and private lives.
While not always historically accurate by modern standards, "The Twelve Caesars" remains an invaluable and highly entertaining source on the early Roman Empire. It has shaped our view of figures like Julius Caesar, Augustus, and Nero for centuries. This classic work continues to offer timeless insights into the nature of power and leadership.
Julius Caesar: The Man Who Changed Rome Forever
Early Life and Rise to Power
In 85 BCE, a 15-year-old boy named Julius Caesar faced a pivotal moment - the death of his father. As the new head of his household, young Caesar was thrust into a turbulent time in Roman history. The Republic was torn by a bitter civil war between conservative aristocrats and populist reformers.
Caesar came from a noble but not particularly prominent family. His uncle, Gaius Marius, had been a famous general and leader of the populist faction. This connection put Caesar in a precarious position when the aristocrats emerged victorious from the civil war. Their leader, the dictator Sulla, stripped Caesar of his inheritance and forced him into hiding.
Sulla eventually pardoned Caesar, but with an ominous prediction. The dictator saw in the young man the makings of someone who could one day bring down the Republic. As it turned out, Sulla's fears were well-founded.
After a stint of military service abroad, Caesar returned to Rome and began building his political career. He proved to be a gifted orator and a fierce advocate for the common people, defending their rights in the courts. Caesar showed early on that he could be a ruthless opponent when crossed.
This ruthlessness was on full display after Caesar was kidnapped by pirates while crossing the Aegean Sea. When his captors set his ransom at 20 talents of silver, Caesar was insulted by the low figure. He insisted they raise it to 50 talents. Once freed, Caesar raised a fleet, hunted down the pirates, and had them all executed by crucifixion - just as he had promised them he would do.
By 69 BCE, Caesar's political star was rising. He was elected to oversee Rome's finances, an important stepping stone. But the ambitious Caesar was growing impatient. He was keenly aware that at his age, Alexander the Great had already conquered much of the known world. Caesar yearned to make his own mark on history. His chance would soon come.
Military Genius and Path to Power
As Caesar's influence grew, Rome's conservative faction became increasingly wary of him. They saw him as a dangerous radical from a family of political reformers. His popularity with the common people and his flair for organizing gladiatorial spectacles raised fears that he was assembling a private army to seize power.
But Caesar had his sights set on commanding Rome's legions, not a band of gladiators. In 60 BCE, he ran for the position of consul, Rome's highest elected office. Despite fierce opposition and attempts to bribe voters against him, Caesar won.
During his year as consul, Caesar appointed himself governor of several Roman provinces, including Cisalpine Gaul in northern Italy. This gave him direct command of four legions - about 14,000 trained soldiers. It was the army Caesar needed to achieve greatness.
Caesar proved to be a brilliant military commander. He referred to his men as "comrades" rather than merely soldiers, inspiring deep loyalty. When his forces suffered losses, Caesar would refuse to cut his hair or shave until the fallen were avenged. Such gestures motivated his troops to fight bravely for him.
After subduing the Germanic tribes threatening Rome's northern borders, Caesar returned to Italy in 49 BCE with his battle-hardened legions. Civil war erupted, but this time Caesar emerged victorious. He assumed the role of dictator, wielding absolute power in Rome.
Though he only ruled for five years before his assassination, Caesar's reign was transformative. He set in motion the end of the Roman Republic and the birth of the Roman Empire. From this point forward, Rome would be ruled by those who could claim to be Caesar's heirs and successors.
Assassination and Legacy
Caesar was acutely aware of his importance to Rome. He predicted that his death would plunge the Republic into another devastating civil war. His prophecy came true when a group of senators, fearing Caesar intended to make himself king, stabbed him to death in 44 BCE.
Caesar's assassination threw Rome into crisis. His plebeian supporters sought vengeance against the aristocratic killers, who saw themselves as heroes who had saved the Republic from tyranny. But who would rule Rome now? Would it be another military dictator like Caesar, or something new entirely?
Three main contenders for power emerged in the aftermath of Caesar's death. Brutus and Cassius, the leading assassins, represented a return to the old Republican system. Mark Antony, Caesar's friend and fellow general, favored another military dictatorship. Then there was Octavian, Caesar's 18-year-old adopted son and heir. His intentions were less clear, but he clearly had a plan.
Antony initially gained the upper hand, using popular outrage to drive Brutus and Cassius into exile. But they remained a threat. Octavian and Antony formed an uneasy alliance to eliminate them. In 42 BCE, their combined forces defeated Brutus and Cassius at the Battle of Philippi.
Octavian proved as ruthless as his adoptive father. When prisoners begged to be given proper burials after execution, he coldly replied that they could take it up with the carrion birds. He had Brutus's head sent to Rome and thrown at the feet of Caesar's statue.
But the alliance between Octavian and Antony soon fractured. Antony's relationship with Cleopatra, the ruler of Egypt, raised Roman suspicions. Octavian skillfully manipulated these fears, convincing the Senate that Antony and Cleopatra posed a threat to Rome. In 31 BCE, Octavian's forces defeated Antony. Both Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide soon after.
With his rivals eliminated, Octavian was left as the undisputed ruler of the Roman world. After years of chaos and civil war, he brought peace and stability. In 27 BCE, Octavian took the name Augustus and became Rome's first emperor. The Republic was dead; the Empire had begun.
Caesar's brief reign had changed Rome forever. Though he ruled as dictator for only five years, he set in motion the transformation of Rome from republic to empire. His name would become synonymous with supreme leadership, living on in titles like Kaiser and Tsar. Few individuals in history have left such an indelible mark on the world.
Augustus: The Man Who Built an Empire
From Octavian to Augustus
After years of civil war, Rome was desperate for peace and stability. Octavian, now known as Augustus, provided exactly that. His reign marked the beginning of the Pax Romana - the Roman Peace - a 200-year period of relative stability and prosperity.
Augustus proved to be a shrewd ruler. He understood that Romans were wary of outright monarchy after centuries of republican rule. So while he wielded supreme power, Augustus was careful to maintain the facade of republican government. He took the title of Princeps - first citizen - rather than king or dictator.
Under Augustus, Rome flourished. Commerce expanded, the empire's borders grew more secure, and an era of peace settled over the Mediterranean world. Augustus embarked on an ambitious building program, famously boasting that he "found Rome a city of brick and left it a city of marble."
But what kind of man was Augustus? Given his absolute power, we might expect him to have been a tyrant consumed by imperial hubris. But Suetonius paints a rather different picture.
A Humble Emperor
Despite being hailed as the son of the deified Julius Caesar, Augustus cultivated an image of humility and frugality. He lived on the Palatine Hill, the traditional home of Rome's elite. But his house was strikingly modest compared to his wealthy neighbors. It was built of simple brick rather than marble and lacked the elaborate decorations typical of upper-class Roman homes.
Augustus's personal habits were equally restrained. He avoided ostentatious imperial regalia, preferring to wear simple clothes woven by his wife and daughters. Rather than indulging in lavish feasts, he ate modest meals of coarse bread, cheese, and fish. Augustus rarely drank more than three cups of wine at a sitting.
Even in his appearance, Augustus eschewed imperial pomp. He disliked time-consuming grooming rituals, viewing them as a distraction from important business. To save time, he would have multiple barbers work on him simultaneously while he read correspondence.
Perhaps Augustus's most striking feature was his serene, tranquil expression. This calmness could be disarming to potential enemies. A Gallic chieftain once admitted he had planned to throw Augustus off a cliff during a meeting in the Alps. But upon seeing the emperor's peaceful countenance, the chief found his resolve melting away.
The Foundations of Imperial Rule
While projecting an image of republican simplicity, Augustus was laying the groundwork for imperial rule. He gradually accumulated various powers and offices, becoming commander-in-chief of the army, head of the Roman religion, and controller of the state treasury. But he was careful to root his authority in republican institutions and traditions.
Augustus also understood the importance of imagery and propaganda. He commissioned works of art and literature that portrayed him as a great leader ushering in a golden age for Rome. The poet Virgil's epic Aeneid linked Augustus to Rome's mythical Trojan founders, giving his rule a sense of divine destiny.
At the same time, Augustus worked to restore traditional Roman values and religious practices. He passed laws to encourage marriage and childbearing among the upper classes. He also rebuilt temples and revived ancient priesthoods that had fallen into neglect.
By combining old Roman traditions with new imperial institutions, Augustus created a system of government that would endure for centuries. When he died in 14 CE at the age of 75, Augustus had ruled Rome for over 40 years. He left behind a stable, prosperous empire that stretched from Spain to Syria.
Augustus had succeeded where Caesar had failed - he had transformed Rome into a monarchy while maintaining the illusion of republican rule. His reign marked the true beginning of imperial Rome and set the template that future emperors would follow.
Tiberius: The Reluctant Emperor
An Experienced but Unpopular Choice
When Augustus died in 14 CE, he was succeeded by his stepson Tiberius. At 56 years old, Tiberius was an experienced military commander and administrator. But he was far from Augustus's first choice as heir.
Augustus had originally groomed his nephew Marcellus and then his grandsons Gaius and Lucius to succeed him. But they all died young. Eventually, Augustus adopted Tiberius and named him heir, but it was clear this was a reluctant choice.
Tiberius himself seemed ambivalent about becoming emperor. When the Senate offered him supreme power, he initially refused, saying the job was too much for any one man. Whether this reluctance was genuine or a calculated political move is debated by historians.
In any case, Tiberius eventually accepted and became Rome's second emperor. But he never achieved the popularity of Augustus. Tiberius was seen as gloomy and reclusive, lacking his predecessor's charm and political skill.
A Competent but Uninspiring Ruler
Despite his personal unpopularity, Tiberius proved to be a capable administrator. He was fiscally responsible, maintained a strong military, and generally governed well. Under Tiberius, the empire remained stable and prosperous.
But Tiberius seemed to take little joy in ruling. He rarely left Rome in his early years as emperor, and later in life retreated entirely to the island of Capri. From there, he ruled in self-imposed isolation, rarely visiting the capital.
Tiberius's reclusiveness fed rumors and speculation in Rome. Stories circulated about the emperor engaging in all manner of debauchery and perversion on his island retreat. Whether these tales were true or merely gossip is impossible to know for certain.
The Rise of Sejanus and Tiberius's Paranoia
As Tiberius withdrew from public life, he increasingly relied on the Praetorian Prefect Sejanus to handle day-to-day governance. Sejanus accumulated enormous power, leading some to see him as the de facto ruler of Rome.
But in 31 CE, Tiberius abruptly turned on Sejanus, having him arrested and executed. The reasons for this sudden reversal are unclear, but it seems Tiberius feared Sejanus was plotting to seize the throne.
In the aftermath of Sejanus's fall, Tiberius became increasingly paranoid and cruel. He launched a series of treason trials, executing or exiling many prominent Romans. The last years of his reign were marked by an atmosphere of fear and suspicion in Rome.
A Troubled Legacy
Tiberius died in 37 CE at the age of 77, having ruled for 23 years. His reign had maintained the stability and prosperity established by Augustus. But Tiberius left behind a troubled legacy.
His reclusiveness and the purges of his later years had made him deeply unpopular. Many Romans rejoiced at the news of his death. Tiberius's reputation would never recover - later writers like Tacitus and Suetonius portrayed him as a gloomy tyrant.
Perhaps most significantly, Tiberius failed to groom a suitable heir. His own son had died years earlier. This left his young and inexperienced grandnephew Gaius - better known to history as Caligula - as his successor. Tiberius's failure to ensure a smooth transition of power would have dire consequences for Rome.
Caligula: Rome's Mad Emperor
A Promising Start
When Tiberius died in 37 CE, Rome welcomed his successor with open arms. Gaius Caesar, better known by his childhood nickname Caligula ("Little Boot"), was just 24 years old when he became emperor. But he was immensely popular thanks to his famous father, Germanicus.
Germanicus had been a renowned general and a favorite of the Roman people. Many had hoped he would succeed Augustus as emperor, but he died young under suspicious circumstances. Now his son would take the throne, and Romans were optimistic about this new, youthful emperor.
Caligula's early months as emperor seemed to justify this optimism. He recalled exiles, eliminated unpopular taxes, and put on lavish games for the public's entertainment. He appeared to be a generous and capable ruler.
But this honeymoon period would not last long. Whether due to illness, the corrupting influence of power, or some inherent instability in his character, Caligula soon began to change. The promising young emperor would transform into one of the most infamous tyrants in Roman history.
Descent into Madness and Tyranny
Suetonius divides Caligula's reign into two distinct periods - his time as a proper emperor, and his time ruling as a "monster." It was in this second guise that Caligula would leave his mark on history.
Caligula became convinced of his own divinity. He had a temple built to himself in Rome, where priests sacrificed exotic birds in his honor. He replaced the heads of statues of other gods with likenesses of his own face. At times, he would dress up as various deities, presenting himself as a living god to his subjects.
But it was Caligula's cruelty, more than his delusions of godhood, that earned him his monstrous reputation. He frequently abused his power in capricious and sadistic ways.
On a whim, he would order executions or force senators to run for miles beside his chariot. He once threatened to make his horse a consul, mocking the Senate's authority. He would invite men to dine with him, only to have them secretly killed beforehand. Then he would comment casually that they must have committed suicide.
Caligula's behavior grew increasingly erratic and megalomaniacal. He launched a bizarre military campaign, ordering his troops to gather seashells as the "spoils of the ocean." He built a three-mile bridge of ships across the Bay of Naples for no apparent reason other than to prove he could walk on water.
A Violent End
Such tyranny could not be endured indefinitely. In 41 CE, after less than four years on the throne, the 28-year-old Caligula was assassinated by members of the Praetorian Guard in league with several senators.
Caligula's brief reign had been disastrous for Rome. His capricious cruelty had terrorized the elite, while his extravagant spending had drained the treasury. He left behind no clear successor, throwing the empire into crisis once again.
In the chaos following Caligula's assassination, an unlikely figure would emerge as Rome's next ruler - Caligula's uncle, the stammering scholar Claudius. Found hiding behind a curtain in the palace, Claudius would be hailed as emperor by the Praetorian Guard. Rome's improbable fourth emperor was about to begin his reign.
Claudius: The Unlikely Emperor
From Laughingstock to Emperor
When Caligula was assassinated in 41 CE, his 51-year-old uncle Claudius feared he would be next. As a close male relative of the emperor, Claudius was a likely target for any coup seeking to eliminate the imperial family.
Hearing commotion in the palace, Claudius hid behind a curtain. A soldier spotted his feet and pulled the curtain back. Expecting to be killed, Claudius fell to his knees begging for mercy. Instead, he was hailed as the new emperor of Rome.
It was an unlikely turn of events. Claudius had never been considered a serious contender for power. He suffered from various physical ailments - he walked with a limp, drooled when excited, and spoke with a stutter. These infirmities had made him an object of mockery for much of his life.
Even his own family had viewed Claudius as an embarrassment. His mother called him "a monster of a man, not finished but merely begun by Dame Nature." Caligula had kept Claudius around mainly to humiliate him for entertainment.
But Claudius had used his years on the sidelines wisely. Free from the pressures of a public career, he had devoted himself to scholarship, becoming an expert on history and law. This knowledge would serve him well as emperor.
A Competent but Fearful Ruler
Once in power, Claudius proved to be a surprisingly capable administrator. His physical health improved dramatically, though he remained plagued by digestive issues. Claudius embarked on several major public works projects, including a new aqueduct to bring fresh water to Rome and the construction of a new port at Ostia.
Claudius also oversaw the conquest of Britain, personally traveling there to oversee part of the campaign. This was the most significant expansion of the empire since the time of Augustus.
But Claudius never shook his reputation for weakness, and this emboldened his enemies. During his 13-year reign, he faced at least a dozen serious conspiracies against him. Some were hatched by his own servants, others by his wife Messalina, and still others by high-ranking senators.
These constant threats took their toll on Claudius. He became increasingly paranoid and absent-minded in his later years. At times, he would ask why people he had executed weren't at dinner - not as a cruel joke, but out of genuine confusion.
A Troubled Succession
In 54 CE, Claudius died at the age of 63. Suetonius reports several theories about his death, but the most widely accepted version is that he was poisoned by his fourth wife, Agrippina. She was eager to see her son Nero take the throne before Claudius could name someone else as heir.
If true, it was a fitting end for an emperor whose reign had been marked by palace intrigue and conspiracy. Claudius had proven to be a more capable ruler than anyone expected. But his inability to secure the loyalty of those closest to him ultimately proved his undoing.
With Claudius's death, his 16-year-old stepson Nero became emperor. Rome was about to enter one of its most infamous and turbulent periods, as the last of the Julio-Claudian emperors took the throne.
Nero: The Artist Emperor
A Promising Beginning
When Claudius died in 54 CE, his 16-year-old adopted son Nero succeeded him as emperor. Like Caligula before him, the young Nero was initially welcomed by the Roman people. He was seen as a fresh start after the paranoid final years of Claudius's reign.
Nero's early rule seemed to justify this optimism. Modeling himself after Augustus, he emphasized his generosity and clemency. He lowered taxes, particularly those that weighed heavily on the common people. He used his own funds to extend Rome's walls and build a new canal. When asked to sign death warrants, Nero would sigh and say he wished he had never learned to write.
But this benevolent facade would not last. Nero's true passions lay not in governance, but in art and self-aggrandizement. As his reign progressed, he would prioritize his own desires over the needs of the empire, with disastrous results.
The Artist Emperor
Above all else, Nero wanted to be recognized as a great artist. He devoted enormous time and energy to practicing the lyre, a stringed instrument similar to a small harp. He also worked tirelessly to improve his singing voice, trying various remedies and exercises.
Nero's artistic pursuits came to dominate his rule. He organized lengthy performances where he would sing and play for hours on end. Attendance was mandatory for the upper classes, and guests were forbidden from leaving. Some resorted to faking their own deaths to escape these interminable recitals.
But music wasn't Nero's only artistic passion. He also dreamed of redesigning Rome itself. In 64 CE, a catastrophic fire swept through the city, destroying much of its historic center. Many Romans believed Nero had started the blaze himself to clear space for his grand architectural visions.
Did Nero really "fiddle while Rome burned," as the famous saying goes? Suetonius reports that Nero climbed a tower overlooking the city and sang about the fall of Troy while watching the fire. Whether this actually happened is debatable, but it captures the essence of how Romans viewed their emperor - as an artist more concerned with his own glory than the welfare of his people.
Tyranny and Downfall
As Nero's artistic obsessions grew, so did his tyrannical tendencies. The great fire of 64 CE marked a turning point. Needing a scapegoat, Nero blamed the Christian community for starting the blaze. This led to the first major persecution of Christians by the Roman state.
Nero also faced a major conspiracy in 65 CE. Though the plot was foiled, it left him paranoid and vengeful. He launched a series of purges, executing or forcing the suicides of many prominent Romans, including his former tutor Seneca.
The emperor's behavior grew increasingly erratic and cruel. He kicked his pregnant wife to death in a fit of rage. He had young boys castrated so he could "marry" them. He squandered the imperial treasury on his artistic and architectural projects.
By 68 CE, discontent had spread to the provinces. The governor of Gaul, Vindex, raised a rebellion against Nero. Though it was quickly put down, it inspired others. Soon, legions in Spain proclaimed their commander, Galba, as the new emperor.
Deserted by his guards and declared a public enemy by the Senate, Nero fled Rome. With soldiers closing in, he committed suicide on June 9, 68 CE. His famous last words were "What an artist dies in me!"
Nero's death marked the end of the Julio-Claudian dynasty that had ruled Rome since Augustus. The empire was about to enter a new period of instability and civil war, as rival claimants fought for the throne. The Year of the Four Emperors had begun.
The Year of the Four Emperors
Galba: The Short-Lived Reformer
With Nero's suicide in 68 CE, the Julio-Claudian dynasty came to an end. There was no clear line of succession. Into this power vacuum stepped Galba, the elderly governor of Spain who had been proclaimed emperor by his troops.
Galba had been a competent administrator and military commander under previous emperors. He had earned praise from Caligula for running 20 miles alongside the emperor's chariot during an inspection. Later, he had won Claudius's gratitude by refusing to join a plot against him after Caligula's assassination.
But Emperor Galba was a different man from Governor Galba. Aged 70 when he took power, he seems to have viewed his role as that of a stern reformer, there to clean up the mess left by Nero. This attitude quickly made him unpopular.
Galba's biggest mistake was alienating the very soldiers who had put him on the throne. He refused to pay the bonuses promised to the troops who had supported his bid for power, haughtily declaring that he levied troops, he didn't buy them. This betrayal was not taken lightly by the legions.
As discontent grew, Galba's position became precarious. The German legions proclaimed their own commander, Vitellius, as emperor and began marching on Rome. Galba scrambled to shore up his support, but it was too late.
In January of 69 CE, after just seven months as emperor, Galba was overthrown by the Praetorian Guard. He was killed by a mob in the Roman Forum. His brief reign had done little to stabilize the empire. If anything, it had only deepened the crisis.
Otho: The Gambler
In the chaos following Galba's overthrow, the Senate proclaimed Marcus Salvius Otho as the new emperor. Otho had been one of Nero's close companions before joining Galba's cause. But when Galba passed him over as heir in favor of a younger man, Otho decided to seize power for himself.
Otho's reign would be even shorter than Galba's. He ruled for just three months before his luck ran out. Facing the approach of Vitellius's powerful German legions, Otho decided to stake everything on a quick victory. He abandoned his favorable defensive position and launched a disastrous offensive.
Defeat seemed inevitable, and a long, bloody civil war loomed. Otho, who still shuddered at the names of Brutus and Cassius (Caesar's assassins), was desperate to prevent further bloodshed. On April 16, 69 CE, he took his own life with a dagger. He had been emperor for just 95 days.
Vitellius: The Glutton
With Otho's suicide, Vitellius became the third man to claim the title of emperor in less than a year. He entered Rome in July of 69 CE, but his triumph would be short-lived.
Vitellius quickly earned a reputation for gluttony and excess. He drained the imperial treasury with lavish feasts and games. To replenish the coffers, he imposed crushing taxes on the common people and plundered the wealthy. Critics of his misrule were exiled or executed.
As Vitellius indulged his appetites in Rome, discontent was brewing in the eastern provinces. The legions there proclaimed their own commander, Vespasian, as emperor. Vespasian had been leading the Roman campaign to suppress a Jewish revolt in Judea. Now he turned his experienced troops towards Rome.
Vitellius's position crumbled in the face of Vespasian's advance. Legion after legion switched sides. By December, Vespasian's forces were at the gates of Rome. Vitellius made a belated attempt to abdicate, but could find no one willing to take power from him.
When Vespasian's troops entered the city, Vitellius was found hiding in the palace. He was dragged through the streets, tortured, and executed. His body was thrown into the Tiber river. He had ruled for just eight months.
On December 21, 69 CE, the Senate proclaimed Vespasian as emperor. The Year of the Four Emperors was over. A new dynasty - the Flavians - was about to begin.
The Flavian Dynasty
Vespasian: The Down-to-Earth Emperor
After a year of chaos and civil war, Rome finally had a stable ruler in Vespasian. At 60 years old, he was an experienced military commander and administrator. Unlike his immediate predecessors, Vespasian had not been born into the Roman elite. He came from a relatively humble background, and this shaped his approach to power.
Vespasian was initially unsure of how to comport himself as emperor. After the excesses of Nero and the brief, turbulent reigns that followed, what kind of ruler did Rome need? He found his answer in restoring discipline and order to the empire.
This meant cracking down on anything perceived as softness or laxity. When a man reeking of perfume came to thank him for an appointment, Vespasian cancelled the commission in disgust. He rejected a military unit's request for a shoe allowance, telling them to march barefoot in the future.
But Vespasian's sternness was balanced by a down-to-earth sense of humor. Unlike previous emperors, he didn't take himself too seriously. When flatterers tried to give him a divine ancestry, he laughed it off. He tolerated criticism and even rudeness with good grace. When a sharp-tongued philosopher insulted him, Vespasian merely called him a "good dog."
Vespasian's main vice seems to have been greed. The imperial treasury was depleted after years of mismanagement and civil war. To raise funds, Vespasian resorted to some questionable methods. He would appoint corrupt officials to high office, let them accumulate bribes, then charge them with corruption and seize their ill-gotten gains. He also imposed new taxes on previously untaxed things - including public urinals. When his son complained about this undignified source of revenue, Vespasian held up a coin and asked if it smelled bad. "Money doesn't stink," he declared.
Despite these flaws, Vespasian proved to be a capable and mostly popular ruler. He brought stability back to the empire after years of turmoil. He initiated major building projects, including the famous Colosseum. He also took steps to secure a smooth succession, grooming his sons Titus and Domitian to follow him.
Vespasian died of natural causes in 79 CE after ruling for ten years. On his deathbed, he joked that he must be turning into a god. It was a fitting final quip for an emperor who never lost his common touch.
Titus: The Good Emperor
Vespasian was succeeded by his elder son, Titus. At 39, Titus had already proven himself a capable military commander, leading the Roman forces that crushed the Jewish revolt and destroyed the Temple in Jerusalem in 70 CE.
Many Romans feared that Titus would be another Nero - indulging his own desires at the expense of good governance. But Titus surprised everyone by proving to be a conscientious and generous ruler.
He respected property rights, granted audiences to all who sought them, and abolished the hated secret police established by earlier emperors. When natural disasters struck Italy, Titus stripped decorations from his own palaces to help fund relief efforts. He was so eager to help his subjects that he once lamented having "wasted a day" when he realized he hadn't done anyone a favor in the previous 24 hours.
Unfortunately, Titus's reign was cut short. He died in 81 CE after just two years as emperor, possibly poisoned by his younger brother Domitian. In his final moments, Titus declared that he had only one regret in life - that he had been too weak to execute or exile Domitian, whom he knew had been plotting against him.
Domitian: The Paranoid Tyrant
Domitian, the younger son of Vespasian, succeeded his brother Titus in 81 CE. Unlike Titus, who had outshone him as a youth, Domitian had always been in his brother's shadow. Now, at last, he had the power he had long craved.
At first, Domitian seemed unsure what to do with his newfound authority. Suetonius tells us that for months he spent his days alone, doing nothing but catching flies and impaling them on a needle.
When Domitian did turn his attention to governing, he showed some initial promise. He restored buildings damaged by fires, raised military pay, and set aside land for growing grain. But these reforms didn't hold his interest for long.
Increasingly, Domitian indulged his cruel impulses. He executed people on a whim - a sickly boy who resembled an actor he disliked, a historian who made an innocuous comment that annoyed him. He personally oversaw the torture of prisoners and cut off the hands of others. Often, he would invite victims to his quarters and speak movingly of mercy, only to have them killed in front of him once they felt safe.
Domitian's paranoia grew over the years. He lined the walls of his palace with reflective stones so he could see anyone approaching from behind. He had a senator executed for no greater crime than naming his slave "Hannibal." Even his own wife wasn't safe - he had her exiled and then recalled her, only to have her killed shortly after.
This reign of terror lasted for 15 years. Finally, in 96 CE, a group of courtiers and servants assassinated Domitian. His body was carried away by public undertakers and buried without ceremony - a ignominious end for the last of the Flavian emperors.
Conclusion
Suetonius's "The Twelve Caesars" provides a vivid, if not always historically accurate, portrait of the men who shaped the early Roman Empire. From the brilliant but ill-fated Julius Caesar to the paranoid tyrant Domitian, we see how absolute power influenced and often corrupted these rulers.
The Julio-Claudian dynasty, founded by Augustus, brought stability and prosperity to Rome for decades. But it also sowed the seeds of its own destruction through poor succession planning and the corro