Introduction
In "The Varieties of Religious Experience," William James explores the complex and multifaceted world of religious experiences. This groundbreaking work, based on a series of lectures given by James near the turn of the 20th century, delves into the psychological aspects of religion and spirituality. James argues that studying religious experiences can provide valuable insights into human psychology and even help cure mental illnesses.
The book challenges readers to look beyond the surface-level aspects of religion, such as churches, mosques, temples, and holy books, and instead focus on the deeper, more personal elements of religious experience. James examines how these experiences shape our perceptions, emotions, and behaviors, offering a unique perspective on the role of religion in human life.
The Importance of Studying Religious Experience
James begins by emphasizing the significance of studying religious experiences in understanding human psychology. He argues that while science and philosophy have their place in explaining the world around us, they are insufficient in fully capturing the complexity of human experiences and perceptions.
One of the key reasons for this is the subjective nature of how we view the world. No two people perceive reality in exactly the same way, and our emotions and judgments heavily influence our unique perspectives. Religious experiences, in particular, can expose individuals to new emotions and guide them toward new conclusions, making them a crucial area of study for understanding human psychology.
James challenges the notion that religious experiences should be dismissed as symptoms of mental illness or instability. Instead, he argues that these experiences can be immensely valuable and educational, regardless of their origin. He cites the example of George Fox, the founder of Quakerism, who experienced revelatory visions that some might consider psychotic. However, these experiences ultimately led Fox to establish a religion that continues to thrive today.
Institutional vs. Personal Religion
To better understand religious experiences, James distinguishes between two main facets of religion: institutional and personal.
Institutional religion refers to the systems of religious participation that are often a result of cultural upbringing rather than personal choice. For example, reciting prayers at a funeral out of convention rather than deep personal significance falls under this category.
Personal religion, on the other hand, represents the source of our deep-rooted beliefs and the things we consider to be true. James argues that the world's great religions all aim to tap into this vein of personal truth. Interestingly, he notes that personal religion doesn't necessarily require a belief in God or gods. For instance, a strong belief in science can function as a form of personal religion, as it serves as an overarching personal truth.
James focuses on personal religion as the foundation for religious experiences, defining it as the feelings, experiences, and behaviors individuals have when they feel connected to what they consider divine.
The Power of the Unseen
James explores the concept that unseen ideas and beliefs can be just as real and influential as tangible, visible things. He argues that we all believe in things that can't be seen, and sometimes the pictures in our minds seem even more real than what we actually see in front of us.
Religious belief, according to James, can be viewed as a belief in an unseen order – something that shapes and informs our behavior, even if we can't prove its existence. This concept extends beyond religion to other aspects of life, such as our belief in free will or human potential.
James draws on Plato's idea of forms to illustrate how abstract and unseen ideas affect the way we think. He argues that our ideas of beauty, strength, truth, and justice allow us to define our visible world, even though these concepts themselves are intangible.
This understanding of the power of unseen beliefs helps explain why rational arguments often fail to convince people to abandon their religious convictions. Our sense of truth is based on how we construct our reality, and for someone who believes in God, no rational argument could convince them that He isn't real.
Healthy-Mindedness and Religious Experience
James introduces the concept of healthy-mindedness and its relationship to religious experience. He identifies two types of people who achieve healthy-mindedness in different ways:
The "once-born": These individuals are naturally happy and healthy-minded. They struggle to find reasons not to be happy and experience the world with an almost childlike joy.
The "twice-born": These people see the world as divided between good and bad. They must actively work to achieve a healthy-minded view of life by either rejecting, overcoming, or ignoring the negative aspects of the world.
James argues that adopting a healthy-minded perspective on life can have significant benefits, including the potential to heal physical illnesses. This idea challenges the scientific view of humans as passive objects affected by external factors like bacteria and viruses. Instead, James suggests that there is an internal force within each of us that we can use to heal ourselves if we open up to it through belief.
The Sickly Soul and Religious Experience
While some people naturally achieve healthy-mindedness, others struggle with what James calls a "sickly soul." He identifies two types of sickly souls:
Those who believe there is evil in the world that makes us commit evil deeds. They seek absolution through prayer and hope.
Those who believe sin is inherent from birth and inescapable. This belief can lead to depressive illness.
James argues that religious experiences can help alleviate depression and heal the sickly soul. He cites the example of Leo Tolstoy, who overcame deep despair and suicidal tendencies through a religious experience. Tolstoy's breakthrough came when he entertained the idea of an infinite, spiritual life, realizing that reason alone couldn't solve the puzzle of existence.
The Divided Self and Religious Experience
James explores the concept of the divided self, particularly in relation to the twice-born. Unlike the once-born, who see the world as a benign unity, the twice-born acknowledge the division between good and bad both outside and within themselves.
This internal conflict can be viewed as a struggle between the ideal self (how we wish to be and act) and the actual self (how we perceive ourselves acting in daily life). James argues that this division can be healed through religious experience in two ways:
Lysis: A gradual change, as seen in Tolstoy's story of healing his soul.
Crisis: An abrupt change, exemplified by Saint Augustine's sudden conversion to Christianity after hearing a voice in a garden.
The Process of Conversion
James delves deeper into the concept of conversion, explaining that it occurs when power is transferred from one set of ideas to another. He calls this shift the "habitual center of personal energy" and notes that it applies to any type of conversion, including changes in political views.
James identifies two main ways in which conversion happens:
Volitional: A voluntary and conscious process, like Tolstoy's experience.
Self-surrender: An involuntary, subconscious process that can sometimes be instantaneous.
He compares these two methods to the ways we might try to remember where we put our house keys – either by consciously retracing our steps (volitional) or by not thinking about it for a while and letting our subconscious mind figure it out (self-surrender).
James notes that religious conversion often brings new emotional experiences, including a sense of well-being, genuine happiness, and the feeling of understanding new truths.
Saintliness as a Result of Religious Experience
One significant outcome of religious conversion, according to James, is the development of saintliness. This characteristic arises when spiritual emotions become the dominant force in shaping a person's behavior.
James identifies four distinct attitudes and beliefs associated with saintliness:
- A feeling of being part of something bigger and belief in an ideal power.
- A sense that this ideal power aligns with one's life and a willingness to surrender to it.
- A powerful feeling of bliss and freedom as personal limitations dissolve.
- A positive and affectionate attitude toward life.
These feelings lead to four characteristics in saintly individuals:
- Asceticism: Finding pleasure in sacrifice and poverty.
- Strength of Soul: Overcoming fears and anxieties with joyful calm.
- Purity: Dedication to seclusion and avoidance of sensual experiences.
- Charity: Increased compassion and embracement of everyone as family.
James uses the example of St. Francis of Assisi to illustrate how these elements come together in one person.
The Changing Value of Saintliness
James acknowledges that the value we ascribe to saintliness changes over time and place. He notes that from a modern perspective, some characteristics of classic saintliness may no longer apply or be considered virtuous.
For example:
- Excessive purity is no longer seen as a virtue.
- Solitude and hermitism have lost importance in favor of involvement in human affairs.
- Extreme charity is rarely useful and may even be dangerous in some situations.
- Asceticism may seem outdated, but James argues that we can still gain wisdom from it, such as learning from voluntary poverty.
Despite these changes, James believes that we can still learn valuable lessons from saints and their saintliness. He encourages readers to find inspiration in these characteristics and consider fostering saintliness in themselves, even if in modified forms that fit modern society.
Mysticism and Mystical Experiences
James devotes significant attention to mysticism and mystical experiences, which he considers key ingredients in personal religion. He defines mystical experiences through four traits:
- Ineffability: The impossibility of communicating the experience to others.
- Noetic quality: The imparting of profound knowledge and understanding.
- Transiency: The typically short duration of the experience.
- Passivity: The feeling of losing control during the experience.
James argues that mystical experiences offer valuable glimpses into alternative realities. While these experiences feel absolutely true to those who have them, the challenge lies in communicating their meaning to others.
To illustrate the potential of mystical states, James shares his own experiments with nitrous oxide (laughing gas), which led him to believe that another consciousness existed, separated from the known world by a thin veil.
The Relationship Between Religious Philosophy and Experience
James explores the relationship between religious philosophy (theology) and religious experience, arguing that religious philosophy is often an attempt to explain and justify religious experiences after the fact.
He notes that theology has historically attempted to prove the existence of God and translate individual experiences into something that others can comprehend. However, James argues that such abstract discussions of religion in philosophical language often hold little practical significance for believers.
Instead of dismissing the study of religion altogether, James proposes a shift towards a critical study of religion. This approach would:
- Help eliminate parts of religious dogma that natural science has proven nonsensical.
- Remove individual and historical misconceptions ingrained in religion over time.
- Weed out unlikely or impossible religious concepts.
- Determine which religions are most favorable based on verifiable beliefs.
James believes that this kind of religious science would ultimately be more helpful than classic religious philosophy or theology.
The Role of Prayer and the Subconscious in Religion
James examines two crucial aspects of religion: prayer and access to the subconscious.
Prayer, according to James, is more than just a recitation of words or traditional sayings. He sees it as a true movement in the soul and a potential source of energy. Many who pray feel a transfer of energy from the higher power they believe in to themselves. Whether this transfer actually occurs is less important than the fact that prayer seems to awaken energy in those who practice it.
James also notes that prayer can be a means of finding solace and can help weaken destructive feelings like fear and egotism, opening new pathways for the soul.
The subconscious, James argues, has served as the basis for many ideas we hold about religion today. Throughout history, entering into the subconscious has offered visions, revelations, and voices to individuals. James cites the example of Mohammed, the founder of Islam, who reportedly received instructions from the angel Gabriel, God directly, and through inspiration in his heart and dreams.
James suggests that the subconscious may be the source of inspiration and plays a crucial role in religious experiences.
Final Thoughts
In "The Varieties of Religious Experience," William James presents a compelling case for the importance of studying religious experiences as a means of understanding human psychology and the nature of belief. He challenges readers to look beyond the superficial aspects of religion and delve into the personal, emotional, and psychological dimensions of spiritual experiences.
James's work remains relevant today, offering insights into the complex relationship between belief, experience, and personal transformation. By examining concepts such as healthy-mindedness, conversion, saintliness, and mysticism, James provides a framework for understanding the diverse ways in which individuals engage with and are affected by religious and spiritual experiences.
The book encourages a more nuanced and empathetic approach to studying religion, one that acknowledges the profound impact these experiences can have on individuals and society as a whole. James's call for a critical study of religion that balances scientific inquiry with an appreciation for personal experience continues to resonate in our increasingly diverse and complex world.
Ultimately, "The Varieties of Religious Experience" invites readers to consider the enduring power of religious and spiritual experiences in shaping human consciousness and behavior. It challenges us to approach these experiences with an open mind, recognizing their potential to offer valuable insights into the human condition and to contribute to personal growth and well-being.